Genome-wide detection of genomic rearrangements and use of genomic rearrangements to diagnose genetic disease

ABSTRACT

The disclosure relates to the genome-wide identification of “rearrangement hotspots”. The disclosure also relates to a microarray chip system for use in detecting genomic rearrangements and a method of manufacturing a microarray chip system useful for detecting genomic rearrangements. The disclosure also relates to methods for detecting genomic rearrangements associated with genetic diseases. The disclosure further relates to methods for using copy number variants in chromosome 2 for detecting Tourette Syndrome.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims benefit under 35 U.S.C. 119(e) to U.S. provisional application No. 61/579,214, filed Dec. 22, 2011, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

INCORPORATION OF SEQUENCE LISTING

A computer readable form of the Sequence Listing “12362-P40825US01_SequenceListing.txt” (8,192 bytes), submitted via EFS-WEB and created on Dec. 14, 2012, is herein incorporated by reference.

FIELD

“Rearrangement hotspots”, genomic regions with an elevated frequency of genomic rearrangements such as deletions and duplications, are identified genome-wide. The application discloses microarray chips for detecting genomic rearrangements associated with genetic diseases and methods of manufacturing the microarray chips. The application also discloses methods of using copy number variants to diagnose Tourette Syndrome.

BACKGROUND

Segmental duplications (SDs) or low-copy repeats are blocks of DNA greater than 1 kilobase pair in size which share a high level of sequence homology (>90%) [Bailey J A, (2006); Redon R. et al. (2006); Bailey J A et al. (2002); and Alkan C. (2011)]. The catalogue of SDs comprises approximately 5% of the human genome encompassing 18% of genes [Bailey J A, (2006); Redon R. et al. (2006); Bailey J A et al. (2002); and Alkan C. (2011)]. They are considered antecedents to the formation of copy number variants (CNVs) which comprise approximately 12% of the human genome and are responsible for considerable human genetic variation [Redon R. et al. (2006); Bailey J. A. et al. (2002); Alkan C. et al. (2011); and Sharp A J et al. (2005)]. Emerging evidence suggests that SD regions are frequently associated with known genomic disorders with the vast majority representing novel sites whose genomic architecture is susceptible to disease-causing rearrangements [Sharp A J et al. (2005)]. However, the complexity of their structural architecture in the human genome and, more importantly, their role in disease pathogenesis remains largely elusive.

There is a growing body of evidence suggesting the involvement of multiple events in the origin of genomic rearrangements such as non-allelic homologous recombination (NAHR), non-homologous end joining (NHEJ), fork stalling and template switching (FoSTeS), and microhomology-mediated break-induced replication (MMBIR) [Cu W et al. (2008); Lieber M R et al. (2003); and Zhang F et al. (2009)]. Although the origins of the aforementioned mechanisms are strongly associated with highly homologous regions residing outside of common repeat elements (e.g., transposons) [Conrad F D et al. (2010)], the non-random distribution of highly homologous regions within SDs that are susceptible to such mechanisms remain to be fully elucidated. Moreover, evolutionary conservation of these mechanisms complicates the identification of SD breakpoints due to differing levels of sequence homology.

Genomic disorders arising from microdeletions/duplications can fail to be adequately explained by a single underlying event. The true contribution of NAHR, NEHJ, MMBIR and FoSTeS events to the origin of genomic rearrangement remains elusive, although large-scale studies are beginning to implicate NAHR as one of the primary events contributing to the origin of these genomic copy number changes [Conrad F D et al. (2010) and Mills R E et al. (2011)]. Genomic DNA situated between distal and proximal SDs represents a critical region often reported to be deleted/duplicated due to misalignment of the SDs between homologous chromosomes [Shaikh H T et al. (2007)].

Evidence suggests that the breakpoint architecture of SDs (i.e., distal and proximal) is associated with a higher propensity for NAHR-mediated rearrangement predisposing to an abnormal phenotype [DECIPHER Genomic Aberration Database: http://decipher.sanger.ac.uk/]. In other words, the increased frequency of pathogenic rearrangements is often directly correlated with the structural complexity of the local genomic regions involved. This is consistent with numerous reports indicating that highly homologous regions within SDs influence NAHR-mediated rearrangement events [Conrad F D et al. (2010); Mills R E et al, (2011); and Turner D J et al. (2007)]. These highly homologous regions may be referred to as ‘rearrangement hotspots’. Classic examples of NAHR-mediated genomic rearrangement include genomic disorders such as 3q29 microdeletion/duplication syndrome, globozoospermia, and Williams-Beuren syndrome [Ballif B C et al. (2008); Koscinski I et al. (2011); and Bayes M et al. (2003)].

In a recent report, the detection and validation of 8,599 CNVs using microarrays [Conrad, F D et al. (2010)] and subsequent targeted sequencing on 1067 of these CNV breakpoints [Conrad F D et al. (2010)] revealed extreme homologous regions consistent with NAHR-mediated rearrangements as the primary event in the origin of CNVs.

Array comparative genome hybridization (aCGH) technology, developed in the last decade, affords the capacity to examine the whole human genome on a single chip with a level of resolution dependent only on size and distance between the interrogating probes, a process also known as microarray-based cytogenetics [Diskin S J et al. (2009)]. The resolution afforded by microarray technology is at least 10-fold greater than the best prometaphase chromosome analysis obtained via conventional karyotyping, rendering it a sensitive whole-genome screen for genomic deletions and duplications [Brunetti-Pierri N et al. (2008)].

Genome-wide signatures of ‘rearrangement hotspots’ can facilitate the detection of genomic regions capable of mediating de novo deletions or duplications in humans. In particular, there remains a need for array comparative genome hybridization technology that targets all the vulnerable regions in the genome susceptible to disease-associated rearrangements including rearrangement hotspots, SDs, recently discovered CNVs and telomeric and centromeric chromosomal regions.

Structural variants are a risk factor for neuropsychiatric diseases. For example, Tourette syndrome (TS) is a developmental neuropsychiatric disorder characterized by the presence of both motor and verbal tics. It has a major genetic component but numerous linkage and association studies have not identified any common candidate genes. Copy number variation (CNV) analysis in TS revealed an association with genes previously implicated in autism spectrum disorder although none unique to TS. That no single CNV has been reported to segregate uniquely with TS in affected families provides an opportunity to detect novel CNVs specific to TS through the use of the microarray technology described herein.

SUMMARY OF THE DISCLOSURE

The application relates to a microarray chip system comprising at least: 500, 750, 1000, 1500, 2000 or 4000 distinct oligonucleotide probes bound to a solid support, wherein each oligonucleotide probe comprises a nucleotide sequence complementary to a rearrangement indicator sequence region of a human genome, the rearrangement indicator sequence regions comprising a rearrangement indicator set that is indicative of risk, or occurrence, of genomic rearrangements.

In another embodiment, the application relates to a microarray chip system comprising at least: 500, 750, 1000, 1500, 2000 or 4000 distinct oligonucleotide probes bound to a solid support, wherein each oligonucleotide probe comprises a nucleotide sequence that hybridizes, optionally under medium or high stringency conditions, to a nucleotide sequence complementary to a rearrangement indicator sequence region of a human genome, the rearrangement indicator sequence regions comprising a rearrangement indicator set that is indicative of risk, or occurrence, of genomic rearrangements.

In one embodiment, the oligonucleotide probes are complementary to genomic sequences not more than 100, 150, 280, 300 or 500 base pairs apart within a single rearrangement indicator sequence region. Optionally, the oligonucleotide probes are complementary to every 100, 150, 280, 300 or 500 bp of a rearrangement indicator sequence region. In another embodiment, the oligonucleotides are 30 to 100 base pairs in length, optionally 45 to 65 base pairs in length. In yet another embodiment, the oligonucleotides are complementary to at least 5, 10, 15, 30, 40 or 60 contiguous nucleotides of the rearrangement indicator sequence regions.

In one embodiment, at least 5, 10, 15, 50, 100, 500 or 1000 oligonucleotide probes comprise a nucleotide sequence complementary to a single rearrangement indicator sequence region.

The application also discloses a system wherein the rearrangement indicator sequence regions comprise at least one rearrangement hotspot. Optionally, the rearrangement hotspot is contained within a segmental duplication. In one embodiment, the rearrangement hotspot comprises at least 10 duplicons.

In one embodiment, the rearrangement hotspots are selected from the genomic regions listed in Table 1. In another embodiment, the rearrangement indicator sequence regions are selected from the genomic regions listed in Tables 2-5.

In one embodiment, the solid support comprises at least one microarray chip and the oligonucleotide probes are arrayed on the at least one microarray chip. Optionally, the solid support comprises at least two microarray chips and the oligonucleotide probes are arrayed on the at least two microarray chips.

The application further discloses the use of a microarray chip system comprising: at least 500, 750, 1000, 1500, 2000 or 4000 distinct oligonucleotide probes bound to a solid support, wherein each oligonucleotide probe comprises a nucleotide sequence complementary to a rearrangement indicator sequence region of a human genome, the rearrangement indicator sequence regions comprising a rearrangement indicator set that is indicative of risk, or occurrence, of genomic rearrangements, wherein the use comprises detecting a genomic rearrangement or the risk of a genomic rearrangement or for identifying a novel genomic rearrangement.

In one embodiment, the genomic rearrangement indicates a genetic disease or the risk of a genetic disease.

In another embodiment, the genomic rearrangement is a copy number variation (CNV). Optionally, the CNV comprises a gene deletion or gene duplication. In further embodiments, the genomic rearrangement comprises a complex rearrangement, optionally multiple duplications and/or deletions and combinations thereof. Optionally, the genomic rearrangement comprises a duplication-deletion-duplication, a deletion-duplication-deletion, a duplication-duplication-deletion or a deletion-deletion-duplication. In other embodiments, the genomic rearrangement comprises a triplication. Optionally, the gene deletion or gene duplication comprises the deletion or duplication of a genomic sequence at least 200 bp, 500 bp, 1000 bp or 2000 bp in length.

In another embodiment the genomic rearrangement indicates a genetic disease in a subject. Optionally, the genomic rearrangement indicates the presence of, or the propensity for, a genetic disease in a subject.

Optionally, the genetic disease is Autism Spectrum Disorder, Psoriasis, Ankylosing Spondylitis or Tourette Syndrome. In a further embodiment, the genetic disease is Autism Spectrum Disorder and the genomic rearrangement is detected in the genes PGAP 1 or LNX1. In another further embodiment, the genetic disease is Ankylosing Spondylitis and the genomic rearrangement is detected in the genes UGT2B17 or UGT2B15.

The application also discloses a method of detecting genomic rearrangements in a subject. In one embodiment, the method comprises:

labeling a DNA test sample from a subject with a first fluorophore;

labeling a DNA reference sample with a second fluorophore;

contacting the labeled samples with the microarray system of the present application and hybridizing the labeled samples to the oligonucleotide probes of the present application; and

identifying a putative genomic rearrangement, wherein a non-equal signal ratio between first fluorophore and the second fluorophore identifies a putative genomic rearrangement.

In one embodiment, the DNA test sample and the DNA reference sample are genomic DNA samples. In another embodiment, the labeled samples are hybridized to the oligonucleotide probes of the disclosure under medium or high stringency hybridization conditions.

In one embodiment, a log 2 ratio of >0.25 or <−0.25 identifies a putative genomic rearrangement.

Optionally, the method further comprises validating the putative genomic rearrangement by quantitative FOR, fluorescence in-situ hybridization (FISH) analysis or karyotyping.

In one aspect of the method, the genomic rearrangement is associated with a genetic disease. In another aspect, the genomic rearrangement is a novel genomic rearrangement.

The application also discloses a method of constructing a microarray chip for detecting copy number variations comprising:

identifying at least 500, 1000, 1500, 2000 or 4000 rearrangement indicator sequence regions;

designing oligonucleotide probes complementary to the rearrangement indicator sequence regions; and

arraying the oligonucleotide probes on at least one microarray chip.

In one embodiment, the method further comprises the use of the chip to detect a genomic rearrangement wherein differential binding of a test genomic DNA sample and a reference genomic DNA sample to at least one oligonucleotide probe indicates a genomic rearrangement. Optionally, higher binding of the test genomic DNA sample than the reference genomic DNA sample to at least one oligonucleotide probe indicates a genomic duplication and higher binding of the reference genomic DNA sample than the test genomic DNA sample to at least one oligonucleotide probe indicates a genomic deletion.

Using the genome-wide rearrangement hotspots and microarray chips described herein, the inventors discovered a novel genomic region on chromosome 2 that is associated with copy number variants that segregate with Tourette Syndrome status.

Accordingly, the application also relates to a method of screening for, diagnosing and/or detecting an increased risk of developing Tourette syndrome in a subject comprising detecting the presence of a Tourette syndrome copy number variant in a Tourette syndrome critical region within a sample of the subject, wherein the presence of a Tourette syndrome copy number variant in a Tourette Syndrome critical region is indicative that the subject has Tourette Syndrome and/or an increased risk of developing Tourette syndrome.

In one embodiment, the Tourette Syndrome copy number variant is detected by one or more of: quantitative PCR, RT FOR, QF-PCR, fluorescent in situ hybribization (FISH), a binding agent, and/or a microarray.

The application also relates to a method of evaluating a genomic DNA from a subject suspected of having or having Tourette Syndrome comprising:

a) obtaining a genomic DNA test sample from the subject,

b) assaying the test sample to determine the presence or number of copies of a Tourette Syndrome copy number variant in the test sample

c) assaying a reference sample to determine the presence or number of copies of the Tourette Syndrome copy number variant in the reference sample,

d) identifying differences between the amount or number of copies of the Tourette Syndrome copy number variant in the Lest sample compared to the reference sample;

wherein differences between the amount or number of copies of the Tourette Syndrome copy number variant in the test sample compared to the reference sample are indicative of whether the subject has Tourette Syndrome or an increased risk of developing Tourette Syndrome.

The application also relates to a method of screening for, diagnosing and/or detecting an increased risk of developing Tourette Syndrome in a human subject comprising:

a) obtaining a sample from the subject;

b) assaying the sample for the presence of and detecting a Tourette Syndrome copy number variant in a Tourette Syndrome critical region thereby identifying the subject as having Tourette Syndrome or an increased risk of developing Tourette Syndrome, the assaying comprising hybridizing a probe and/or primer to the Tourette Syndrome copy number variant.

In one embodiment, the Tourette syndrome critical region is on chromosome 2, optionally located at 2q21.1-21.2.

In another embodiment, the Tourette Syndrome copy number variant is a duplication or a deletion. The duplication is optionally a duplication of genomic sequence corresponding to: chr2:132305299-132343808, chr2:132395155-132526804 or chr2:132305299-132343808 of human genome assembly 19.

In one embodiment, detecting a Tourette Syndrome copy number variant with an increased copy number compared to a reference sequence identifies the subject as having Tourette Syndrome or an increased risk of developing Tourette Syndrome. In one embodiment, a copy number of 4 or more compared to a reference sequence identifies the subject as having Tourette Syndrome or an increased risk of developing Tourette Syndrome. Optionally, the reference sequence is a human genome assembly sequence such as human genome assembly 19 (HG19).

In one embodiment the subject is presymptomatic, has one or more clinical symptoms or clinical features associated with Tourette Syndrome, has been diagnosed with Tourette syndrome and/or has at least one blood relation with Tourette Syndrome.

The application also provides isolated nucleic acids. In some embodiments, the isolated nucleic acids are useful as probes or primers for detecting Tourette Syndrome copy number variants.

Accordingly, in one embodiment, the application provides an isolated nucleic acid, wherein the nucleic acid hybridizes to:

a Tourette Syndrome copy number variant or a portion thereof;

a nucleic acid sequence complementary to a); and/or

a nucleic acid sequence corresponding to a).

Optionally, the Tourette Syndrome copy number variant comprises genomic sequence corresponding to chr2:132395155-132526804, chr2:132305299-132343808 or chr2:132480185-132510827 of human genome assembly 19.

In one embodiment, the isolated nucleic acid is a primer or a probe.

The application also provides a kit for screening for, diagnosing or detecting an increased risk of developing Tourette Syndrome comprising:

(a) a Tourette Syndrome copy number variant detection agent comprising an isolated nucleic acid as described here; and

instructions for use or a container for holding the detection agent of (a).

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Embodiments of the disclosure will be shown in relation to the drawings in which the following is shown:

FIG. 1 is a schematic illustrating the hierarchical approach used in the present disclosure. mrsFAST was used to obtain read depth distribution of the NA18507 human genome with maximum two mismatch was allowed against the repeat masked reference human genome (build 36). A mean-based approach was utilized to computationally predict the boundaries of regions associated with excessive read depth. Another alignment algorithm MAQ was used to obtain the consensus genome (mapping quality Q>30 and n=2) from the NA18507 genome assembly. The consensus sequence for highly excessive read depth regions was obtained in order to apply a window-based alignment algorithm. The previously identified novel 4.8 Mb sequence from de novo assembly within this genome was also included in the rearrangement analysis.

FIG. 2 depicts segmental duplication (SD) units which represent the most complex rearrangements within the NA18507 human genome. a) A total of 1963 SD complex units (i.e., ≧10 rearrangements) were identified that were significantly different (p<1.0×10⁻⁶) compared with the rest of the NA18507 genome duplicated regions. The plot illustrates the concordance of the predicted autosomal complex regions compared with previous studies [Conrad, 2010; Sudmant, 2010]. b) Genes that completely or partially overlapped with detected SD units in which 73% (41/56) of the most variable genes in three different populations were detected in our analysis of the NA18507 human genome. Among the 1626 genes identified in this study, 10% (i.e., 166/1626) of genes that overlapped with a SD unit revealed extreme inter- and intra-chromosomal rearrangements, 50% of which have been previously validated [Conrad, 2010]. c) Observed gene content transfer between hotspot and non-hotspot agenic SD units. d) Scatter plot illustrating DNV count for hotspot and non-hotspot SD units. e) A histogram illustrating the mean read depth (RD) of the computationally predicted SD unit breakpoints. The dark bars represent the mean read depth for each of the 20,237 SD unit breakpoints and the light bars represent the mean read depth for hotspot regions.

FIG. 3 depicts the physical position of rearrangement hotspots that has been mapped within the proximal/distal breakpoints of a pathogenic deletion (dark horizontal block) or duplication (light horizontal block).

FIG. 4 depicts the landscape of chromosomal rearrangements in the NA18507 human genome. Chromosomal rearrangements located within duplicated regions are plotted against the human genome. Bars represent the signature of intra-chromosomal rearrangements, inter-chromosomal rearrangements and ‘rearrangement hotspots’. Cytobands with duplications for each chromosome and selected genes that completely or partially overlapped with SD units are also indicated.

FIG. 5 depicts a signature of rearrangement hotspots located at a) 16p12.1 and b) 22q11.21. a) A 40 kbp region within 16p12.1 is illustrated with its corresponding derivative copies which were localized by hierarchical analysis. This region consists of the NPIPL3 gene derivatives. The inter- and intra-chromosomal localization of the copies is approximated in the physical map within the chromosome contig (18p11.21). The alignments are coded for chromosomes (i.e., coded rectangles below the read depth plot) and FISH validation is illustrated for both inter- and intra-chromosomal localization. The pathogenic deletions and duplications located within these regions [Nagamani S C, 2011; Heinzen E L, 2010; Weiss L A, 2008; Walters R G, 2010; Ballif B C, 2007; Tokutomi T, 2009] are depicted in dark and light bars, respectively. The bars under the contig represent the approximated inversions previously reported by Antonacci, F. et al., 2010. b) Analysis of a 37 kbp duplicated region within 22q11.21 revealed it is comprised of a core 2.7 kbp tandem duplicon copied from different chromosomes. Black lines represent the read depth (x-axis), shade represents an SD unit, and bars represent the region with common repeat elements. The horizontal blocks (coded according to chromosomes) are the rearrangement (infra/inter) fragments with >90% sequence similarity and >100 bp in length.

FIG. 6 depicts Tourette Syndrome pedigrees. Family A comprises three generations. Pedigrees B and C comprise two (2) trios with affected offspring. Ten (10) unrelated probands with TS are also shown.

FIG. 7 depicts array CGH microarray results from family A. Each data point represents a probe intensity value. The dotted lines illustrate the genomic gains in two distinct genomic blocks (block1 and block2) within the affected samples. The horizontal line for sample ID3002 demonstrates a partial gain.

FIG. 8 depicts a schematic illustrating a 9 MB critical region located at 2q14.3-q21.2 previously detected in a multiplex family with Dystonia and comparison with the micro-duplications reported in this study. The reciprocal micro-duplication and micro-deletion regions detected in TS and ADHD samples are indicated in upper and lower horizontal blocks, respectively. The micro-duplications reported in this study are located at 2q21.1-21.2 and illustrated by the upper horizontal blocks.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The present disclosure relates to the genome-wide identification of “rearrangement hotspots”. These rearrangement hotspots can facilitate the detection of genomic regions capable of mediating genomic rearrangements or aberrations such as de novo deletions or duplications in humans. The disclosure further relates to microarrays that comprehensively target vulnerable or fragile regions in the genome susceptible to disease-associated rearrangements and the use of the microarrays for detecting disease-associated genomic rearrangements. The application also discloses novel copy number variants in chromosome 2 that were identified using the microarrays described herein and co-segregate with Tourette Syndrome status.

The application describes the identification of genome-wide rearrangement hotspots that often predispose to genomic disorders in humans, mediated predominately by non-allelic homologous recombination. The application discloses a hierarchical approach to detect segmental duplication units using an all-hit mapping algorithm, interrogating every 100 by (GC-corrected read depth window with a 1 by overlap) excluding common repeat elements. Reference-guided assembly was obtained from reads based on the NA18507 human genome and duplicated sequences were extracted from the assembly using detected breakpoints (FIG. 1). To create a genome-wide high resolution map of “rearrangement hotspots”, an end-space free pairwise alignment algorithm was developed integrating a ‘seed and extend’ technique which can accurately investigate the complex structural architecture associated with the technically challenging and problematic nature of segmental duplications. Without being bound by theory, it is believed that highly homologous segmental duplication regions (i.e., rearrangement hotspots) predispose to genomic rearrangements arising from recombination and replication-based events.

In the present disclosure, the terms “genomic rearrangements”, “genomic alterations” and “genomic aberrations” refer to structural modifications, changes and alterations in chromosomal DNA. Common genomic rearrangements include copy number variants (CNVs) including gene duplications and gene deletions. In the present disclosure, the term “copy number variation” is defined as the gain or loss of genomic material compared to a reference sequence.

Additional genomic rearrangements, alterations or aberrations include, but are not limited to, insertions, translocations, recombinations, rearrangements and combinations thereof. The modification or change can vary in size from only a few bases to several kilobases. In some embodiments, the genomic material gained or lost in a genomic rearrangement is greater than 250 bp, 500 bp, 1 KB or 2 KB in size. In a genomic rearrangement, one or more parts of a chromosome are optionally rearranged within a single chromosome (intra-chromosomal) or between chromosomes (inter-chromosomal).

Genomic aberrations, rearrangements and alterations may result from multiple events, including but not limited to, non-allelic homologous recombination (NAHR), non-homologous end-joining (NHEJ), fork stalling and template switching (FoSTes) and microhomology-mediated break induced replication (MMBIR).

Diseases associated with, or indicated by, genomic rearrangements include genetic diseases which arise, at least in part, from genomic aberrations, rearrangements and alterations. Examples of genetic diseases associated with genomic rearrangements include, but are not limited to, 3q29 microdeletion/duplication syndrome, globozoospermia and Williams-Beuren syndrome. Several developmental neurocognitive disorders are caused by recurrent and non-recurrent genomic rearrangement and copy number variants have been identified which are responsible for mental retardation, autism spectrum disorders, developmental delays and multiple congenital anomalies. Copy number variants have also been detected in common autoimmune diseases such as ankylosing spondylitis, psoriasis, psoriatic arthritis, psoriasis vulgaris, rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease and systemic lupus erithmatosis.

Genomic Regions Associated with Genomic Rearrangements

The term “genomic region” refers to a contiguous length of nucleotides in a genome of an organism. A genomic region may be in the range of 10 kb in length to an entire chromosome, for example 100 kb to over 1 MB in length. Genomic regions are also referred to as “breakpoints”.

In the present disclosure, “rearrangement hotspots” are genomic regions susceptible to genomic rearrangements such as gene deletions or gene duplications. Examples of rearrangement hotspots are listed in Table 1. A genomic region susceptible to a genomic rearrangement is optionally a genomic region which is at least 10%, 35%, 50%, 100% more likely to undergo a genomic rearrangement than a genomic region that is not susceptible to genomic rearrangements. Such regions may be termed vulnerable or fragile genomic regions. Rearrangement hotspots can be correlated with increased non-allelic homologous recombination event frequency. In some embodiments of the disclosure, rearrangement hotspots are found within segmental duplications. In one particular embodiment, “rearrangement hotspots” are highly homologous regions within segmental duplication units. “Segmental duplications” (also known as low-copy repeats) are regions of DNA greater than 1 kilobase in size which share a high level of sequence homology, for example, more than 75%, 85% 90% or 95% sequence homology. Segmental duplications include both inter- and intra-chromosomal segmental duplications.

In other embodiments, rearrangement hotspots have a significantly high distribution of duplicons (p<1.0×10⁻⁶) with at least 10 duplicons per hotspot. Rearrangement hotspots optionally range in size from 100 to 15,000 base pairs, optionally 200 to 1000 base pairs.

“Duplicons” are short regions of homologous DNA, optionally greater than 100 bp. Duplicons are optionally located within segmental duplications and are highly homologous sequences located sparsely within the genome. Homologues of the duplicon can be located within the same chromosome or in other chromosomes

A “rearrangement indicator sequence region” is a genomic region identified to have a propensity for genomic rearrangements or known to be involved in genomic rearrangements. Optionally, a “rearrangement indicator sequence region” is a genomic region susceptible to genomic rearrangements such as gene deletions or gene duplications. A “rearrangement indicator sequence region” is optionally a genomic region which is at least 10%, 35%, 50%, 100% more likely to undergo a genomic rearrangement than a genomic region that is not susceptible to genomic rearrangements.

Optionally, a “rearrangement indicator sequence region” is used to identify when a genomic rearrangement has occurred. In one embodiment, oligonucleotides complementary to a “rearrangement indicator sequence region” are used to detect whether a genomic rearrangement has occurred through competitive hybridization of a test genomic DNA sample and a reference DNA sample to the oligonucleotides.

Rearrangement indicator sequence regions include genomic regions comprising or consisting of at least one rearrangement hotspot. A rearrangement indicator sequence region optionally comprises one rearrangement hotspot or multiple rearrangement hotspots. In some embodiments, rearrangement indicator sequence regions are 100 base pairs to 5 MB in length. Rearrangement indicator sequence regions also include genomic regions containing known CNVs and centromeric and telomeric chromosomal regions.

Examples of rearrangement indicator sequence regions are listed in Tables 1-5.

A “rearrangement indicator set” is a set or group of rearrangement indicator sequence regions that together are indicative of risk, or occurrence, of genomic rearrangements. Optionally, a “rearrangement indicator set” is a set or group of rearrangement indicator sequence regions that cumulatively are indicative of risk, or occurrence, of genomic rearrangements. “Risk of genomic rearrangements” refers to the risk that a particular genomic region may undergo a genomic rearrangement. “Occurrence of genomic rearrangements” refers to the presence of a genomic rearrangement in a subject. A “rearrangement indicator set” optionally comprises at least 500, 750, 1000, 1500, 2000 or 4000 rearrangement indicator sequence regions. In one embodiment, a “rearrangement indicator set” comprises at least 500, 750, 1000, 1500, 2000 or 4000 genomic regions that are at least 10%, 35%, 50%, 100% more likely to undergo a genomic rearrangement than a genomic region that is not susceptible to genomic rearrangements.

Oligonucleotides

The present disclosure provides oligonucleotides complementary to nucleotide sequences contained within genomic regions associated with genomic aberrations or rearrangements. The term “oligonucleotide” refers to short single stranded nucleic acid polymers. Oligonucleotides may be made synthetically or enzymatically. Oligonucleotides may range in length from 2 to 200 base pairs.

In one embodiment, the oligonucleotides described herein are used as array probes. The term “oligonucleotide probe” refers to an oligonucleotide designed for use as an array probe. Optionally, the oligonucleotide probes of the present disclosure range from 25-80 base pairs in length, preferably 45-60 base pairs in length.

The terms “complementary” or “complementarity”, as used herein, refer to the natural binding of polynucleotides under permissive salt and temperature conditions by base-pairing. For example, the sequence “A-G-T” binds to the complementary sequence “T-C-A”. Complementarity between two single-stranded molecules may be “partial”, in which only some nucleotides or portions of the nucleotide sequences of the nucleic acids bind, or it may be complete when total complementarity exists between the single stranded molecules. The degree of complementarity between nucleic acid strands has significant effects on the efficiency and strength of hybridization between nucleic acid strands. In one embodiment of the present disclosure, oligonucleotide probes are complementary to contiguous sequences contained within genomic regions associated with genomic aberrations or rearrangements. In another embodiment, oligonucleotide probes hybridize to contiguous sequences contained within genomic regions associated with genomic aberrations or rearrangements. Optionally, the contiguous sequences are at least 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 or 60 basepairs in length.

The term “hybridization” refers to the specific binding of a nucleic acid to a complementary nucleic acid. In one embodiment of the present disclosure, oligonucleotide probes hybridize under medium stringency hybridization conditions to genomic regions associated with genomic aberrations or rearrangements, for example rearrangement indicator sequence regions. In another embodiment, oligonucleotide probes hybridize under high stringency hybridization conditions to genomic regions associated with genomic aberrations or rearrangements, for example rearrangement indicator sequence regions. The terms “medium stringency hybridization conditions” and “high stringency hybridization conditions” are well known to a person skilled in the art. Examples of hybridization conditions may be found in molecular biology reference texts such as Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual by Sambrook and Russell (3^(rd) Edition, Cold Spring Harbour Press, 2001).

The stringency may be selected based on the conditions used in the wash step. For example, the salt concentration in the wash step can be selected from a high stringency of about 0.2×SSC at 50° C. for 15 minutes. In addition, the temperature in the wash step can be at high stringency conditions, at about 65° C. for 15 minutes.

By “medium stringency hybridization conditions” it is meant that conditions are selected which promote selective hybridization between two complementary nucleic acid molecules in solution. Hybridization may occur to all or a portion of a nucleic acid sequence molecule. The hybridizing portion is typically at least 15 (e.g. 20, 25, 30, 40 or 50) nucleotides in length. Those skilled in the art will recognize that the stability of a nucleic acid duplex, or hybrids, is determined by the Tm, which in sodium containing buffers is a function of the sodium ion concentration and temperature (Tm=31.5° C.−16.6 (Log 10[Na+])+0.41(% (G+C)−600/l), or similar equation). Accordingly, the parameters in the wash conditions that determine hybrid stability are sodium ion concentration and temperature. In order to identify molecules that are similar, but not identical, to a known nucleic acid molecule a 1% mismatch may be assumed to result in about a 1° C. decrease in Tm, for example if nucleic acid molecules are sought that have a >95% sequence identity, the final wash temperature will be reduced by about 5° C. Based on these considerations those skilled in the art will be able to readily select appropriate hybridization conditions.

In some embodiments, stringent or high stringency hybridization conditions are selected. By way of example the following conditions may be employed to achieve high stringency hybridization: hybridization at 5× sodium chloride/sodium citrate (SSC)/5×Denhardt's solution/1.0% SDS at Tm−5° C. based on the above equation, followed by a wash of 0.2×SSC/0.1% SDS at 60° C. for 15 minutes. Moderately stringent hybridization conditions include a washing step in 3×SSC at 42° C. for 15 minutes. It is understood, however, that equivalent stringencies may be achieved using alternative buffers, salts and temperatures. Additional guidance regarding hybridization conditions may be found in: Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, John Wiley & Sons, N.Y., 1989, 6.3.1-6.3.6 and in: Sambrook et al., Molecular Cloning, a Laboratory Manual, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 2000, Third Edition.

According to the methods of the disclosure, oligonucleotide probes may be designed which are complementary to the identified rearrangement indicator sequence regions. Optionally, the oligonucleotide probes are designed to hybridize under medium stringency or high stringency conditions to the rearrangement indicator sequence regions.

In one embodiment, the oligonucleotide probes are complementary to, or hybridize to, the genomic regions set out in Tables 1-5. Optionally, the oligonucleotides may be complementary to, or hybridize to, sequences corresponding to the genomic regions set out in Tables 1-5. It is appreciated that there is variation in human genome sequences and the regions set out in Tables 1-5 specifically reflect human genome NA18507. The present disclosure encompasses regions in other human genomes that correspond to the regions depicted in Tables 1-5.

The term “distinct oligonucleotide probes” refers to oligonucleotide probes that each have different/distinct oligonucleotide sequences. Within the context of the present disclosure, “distinct oligonucleotide probes” each bind to, or are complementary to, different/distinct rearrangement indicator sequence regions.

Within a rearrangement indicator sequence region, the spacing between individual oligonucleotide probes ranges from not more than 100, 150, 280, 300, 500 or 1000 base pairs apart. The mean spacing between oligonucleotides with a single rearrangement indicator sequence region is approximately 280 base pairs, optionally 200 to 350 base pairs.

Arrays

One aspect of the application provides an array for use in the methods described herein. In one embodiment, the application provides an array comprising a solid support having a plurality of addresses, wherein each address has disposed thereon an oligonucleotide probe that can specifically bind genomic DNA. In some embodiments, an array contains at least one, ten, 100, 1000, 10,000, 100,000, or 1,000,000 features in an area that is less than 20 cm², 10 cm², 5 cm², 1 cm² or less than 1 mm².

The application also provides a “microarray chip system” comprising at least one solid support, optionally a glass slide, upon which oligonucleotides, such as the oligonucleotide probes described herein, have been arrayed. A microarray chip system includes more than one solid support wherein a unique collection of probes are arrayed on each support.

In one embodiment of the disclosure, the microarray system comprises a plurality of oligonucleotide probes bound to at least one solid support, the oligonucleotide probes comprising nucleotide sequences complementary to at least 500, 750, 1000 or 1500 rearrangement indicator sequence regions and wherein the at least 500, 750, 1000 or 1500 rearrangement indicator sequence regions are represented by at least one oligonucleotide probe. Optionally, the oligonucleotide probes hybridize under medium stringency or high stringency hybridization conditions to at least 500, 750, 1000 or 1500 rearrangement indicator sequence regions. In a preferred embodiment, the rearrangement indicator sequence regions are selected from the genomic regions listed in Tables 1-5.

The present disclosure also relates to methods for manufacturing microarray systems. In one embodiment of the disclosure, a method of constructing a microarray chip or microarray chip system for detecting copy number variations comprises identifying at least 500, 1000, 1500 rearrangement indicator sequence regions, designing oligonucleotide probes corresponding to the genomic regions and arraying the oligonucleotide probes on a microarray chip.

In a further embodiment, the oligonucleotides described herein are arrayed on microarray chips. Optionally, the oligonucleotide probes are arrayed on at least 1, at least 2, at least 3 or at least 4 microarray chips. In one embodiment, one million probes are arrayed on two microarray chips for a total of two million probes.

In a preferred embodiment, the oligonucleotide probes are arrayed on the support using inkjet technology, for example, Agilent's Sureprint system.

Method for Detecting Genomic Rearrangements

The disclosure provides methods for detecting a genomic rearrangement in a subject. Optionally, the disclosure provides for the use of the microarray chips described herein for detecting genomic rearrangements.

The methods of the disclosure further relate to the use of the microarray chips for diagnosing genomic disorders and for diagnosing the propensity to develop a particular disorder. The methods of the disclosure also relate to the use of the microarray chips for identifying a genetic basis for known diseases and for characterizing the specific genomic rearrangements that lead to a particular genetic disorder. In another embodiment of the disclosure, the present microarray chips are used to identify novel genomic rearrangements.

In one embodiment, the method provides competitively hybridizing test DNA samples and reference DNA samples to at least one microarray chip comprising oligonucleotides complementary to at least 500, 750, 1000 or 1500 rearrangement indicator sequence regions. In some embodiments, the methods provide labeling a test DNA sample with a first label and a reference DNA sample with a second label. Optionally, the DNA is genomic DNA.

The term “genomic DNA” refers to deoxyribonucleic acids that are obtained from an organism. The organism may be a human subject, a mouse or any other organism of interest. “Genomic DNA” may be purified, isolated, amplified, fragmented DNA. Optionally, genomic DNA is obtained from biological samples including, but not limited to, cell, tissue, organ, body fluid, excretory samples.

In some embodiments, the test DNA sample is genomic DNA to be tested for genomic rearrangements or aberrations and the reference DNA sample is a standard for detecting differences between the test DNA sample and the reference DNA sample. The test DNA sample may be a genomic DNA sample from a subject believed or suspected to have at least one genomic rearrangement or a disease associated with at least one genomic rearrangement or believed or suspected to have to have at least one genomic rearrangement or a rearrangement for a disease associated with at least one genomic rearrangement. For example, the subject can be a member of a family known to be affected by at least one genomic rearrangement or for a disease associated with at least one genomic rearrangement. In another embodiment, the test DNA sample is a genomic DNA sample from a subject, wherein the subject is to be tested or screened for at least one genomic rearrangement or for a disease associated with at least one genomic rearrangement.

In some embodiments, the reference DNA sample is genomic DNA from a subject who does not have at least one genomic rearrangement or a disease associated with at least one genomic rearrangement.

In a preferred embodiment, the test DNA sample and reference DNA sample are labeled with a substance that allows the quantity of each sample to be detected. Optionally, the labels are fluorescent labels or fluorophores. In one embodiment, the labels are Cy3 and Cy5.

According to the methods of the disclosure, the labeled test DNA and the labeled reference DNA are hybridized competitively to oligonucleotide probes. Optionally, the labeled test DNA and the labeled reference DNA are mixed together prior to hybridization. In one embodiment, labeled test DNA and the labeled reference DNA is hybridized under high stringency or medium stringency conditions to a microarray chip described herein. In a preferred embodiment, the labeled test DNA and the labeled reference DNA is hybridized to at least one microarray comprising oligonucleotide probes complementary to at least 500, 750, 1000 or 1500 rearrangement indicator sequence regions.

The hybridization may be performed under any appropriate hybridization conditions. Preferably, the hybridization is carried out under medium stringency or high stringency hybridization conditions. Optionally, the hybridization is carried out at around 37° C., 48° C. or 60° C. for at least 24, 36, 48, 80 or 86 hours.

Genetic aberrations or rearrangements are optionally detected using the resultant florescent intensities as an indicator.

In one embodiment of the disclosure, the fluorescent intensity on the oligonucleotide probe is measured and genomic rearrangements are detected using fluorescence intensity as an indicator. In one embodiment, in order to detect a genomic rearrangement (for example, a duplication or deletion of the test DNA), the fluorescence intensity ratio of the labeling substance derived from the reference genomic DNA to labeling substance derived from the test genomic DNA is determined from the fluorescence intensity obtained. Fluorescence intensity can be determined, for example, using an image analyzer.

When the ratio of fluorescence intensity of the labeling substance derived from the reference DNA to the labeling substance derived from the test DNA is high, more reference DNA than test DNA has hybridized to the oligonucleotide probe and a potential genomic deletion in the test DNA (a decrease in copy number) is indicated.

When the ratio of fluorescence intensity of the labeling substance derived from the reference DNA to the labeling substance derived from the test DNA is low, more test DNA than reference DNA has hybridized to the oligonucleotide probe and a potential genomic duplication in the test DNA (an increase in copy number) is indicated.

In one embodiment of the disclosure, the analysis parameters for the microarray are as follows:

GC correction is applied on ever 2 kb window of the genome using an ADM-2 algorithm

The derivative of the log spread ration (DLRS) must be <0.3, optionally <0.1; <0.2; <0.3; <0.4 or <0.5 for a sample

The different must be seen in at least 5 probes

The log 2 ratio between the signal corresponding to the test sample and the signal corresponding to the reference sample must be >0.25 or <−0.25, optionally >0.25 or <−0.25, optionally >0.1 or <−0.1; >0.15 or <−0.15; >0.2 or <−0.2; >0.25 or <−0.25; >0.3 or <−0.3; >0.35 or <−0.35; or >0.5 or <−0.5.

In one embodiment of the disclosure, a log 2 ratio of >0.1 or <−0.1; >0.15 or <−0.15; >0.2 or <−0.2; >0.25 or <−0.25; >0.3 or <−0.3; >0.35 or <−0.35; or >0.5 or <−0.5 indicates a putative genomic rearrangement. In another embodiment, a log 2 ratio of >0.25 or <−0.25, indicates a putative genomic rearrangement.

In one embodiment of the disclosure, a method is provided for detecting genomic rearrangements associated or predisposing subjects to developmental neurocognitive disorders (for example, autism spectrum disorder or Tourette syndrome) and complex autoimmune disorders (for example, psoriasis and ankylosing spondylitis).

In one embodiment, the method comprises obtaining genomic DNA from a test subject and genomic DNA from a reference subject. Optionally, the reference subject does not suffer from a developmental neurocognitive disorders (for example, autism spectrum disorder or Tourette syndrome) and/or complex autoimmune disorders (for example, psoriasis and ankylosing spondylitis).

The genomic DNA from the test subject is optionally labeled with a first flourophore, optionally Cy3 or Cy5, and the genomic DNA from the reference subject is optionally labeled with a second flourophore, optionally Cy3 or Cy5. The labeled DNA is competitively hybridized to a microarray chip comprising oligonucleotide probes complementary to genomic regions known to be associated with genomic rearrangements that can indicate a developmental neurocognitive disorder (for example, autism spectrum disorder or Tourette syndrome) and/or a complex autoimmune disorder (for example, psoriasis or ankylosing spondylitis).

In one embodiment, genomic rearrangements in the following genes/regions can be used to indicate developmental neurocognitive disorders (for example, autism spectrum disorder or Tourette syndrome) and/or complex autoimmune disorders (for example, psoriasis and ankylosing spondylitis) or the propensity to develop such a disorder:

Gene or Genomic region Associated Disorder 16p11.2 (50 kb in length) Autism spectrum disorder PGAP-1 gene Autism spectrum disorder LNX1 gene Autism spectrum disorder C7orf58 gene Autism spectrum disorder Within & adjacent to UGT2B17 and Ankylosing spondylitis UGT2B25 genes 2q14.3-2q21.3 Tourette Syndrome

Methods of Diagnosing Tourette Syndrome

Using the microarray chips described herein, the inventors discovered a genomic region on chromosome 2 that is associated with novel copy number variants that segregate with Tourette Syndrome status.

Accordingly, the application discloses methods of screening for, diagnosing and/or detecting an increased risk of developing Tourette Syndrome in a subject comprising detecting the presence of a Tourette Syndrome copy number variant in a Tourette syndrome critical region within a sample of the subject, wherein the presence of a Tourette syndrome copy number variant in a Tourette syndrome critical region is indicative that the subject has Tourette syndrome and/or an increased risk of developing Tourette syndrome.

As used herein, Tourette syndrome (TS) refers to a developmental neuropsychiatric disorder characterized by the presence of motor (simple and/or complex) and verbal tics with duration longer than one year [Pauls et al. 1991; Price et al. 1985; State 2011]. TS often manifests with features associated with obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD), attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), poor impulse control and other behavioural abnormalities.

As used herein the phrase “screening for, diagnosing or detecting Tourette Syndrome” refers to a method or process of determining if a subject has Tourette Syndrome. Further, the phrase “screening for, diagnosing or detecting a risk of developing a Tourette Syndrome” refers to a method or process of determining if a subject has an increased risk of developing Tourette Syndrome.

As used herein, the term “Tourette Syndrome critical region” refers to a genomic region wherein at least one copy number variant within the genomic region segregates with Tourette Syndrome status. “Segregates with Tourette Syndrome status” indicates that a copy number variant is associated with Tourette Syndrome. For example, a particular copy number variant (for example, a duplication or a deletion) is present in subjects who have Tourette Syndrome but is absent in subjects who do not have Tourette Syndrome.

In one embodiment, the “Tourette Syndrome critical region” is located on chromosome 2. In another embodiment, the “Tourette syndrome critical region” is located at 2q14.3-q21.2. In another embodiment, the “Tourette syndrome critical region” is located at 2q21.1-21.2.

As used herein, a “copy number variant” or CNV is a DNA sequence of one kilobase (kb) or longer (for example, at least 2, 5, 10, 30, 50, 100, 150 or 200 kb in length) that is present at a variable copy number in comparison with a reference genome. Examples of reference genomes include the human genome assemblies such as human genome assembly 19 (HG19) and human genomes NA18507, NA10851, NA15510, NA07048.

Examples of copy number variants include “duplications” where the copy number of the DNA sequence is higher compared to a reference genome and “deletions” where the copy number of the DNA sequence is lower compared to a reference genome.

A “Tourette Syndrome copy number variant” refers to a copy number variant, for example a duplication or a deletion, that is associated with or useful for screening, diagnosing or detecting an increased risk of developing Tourette Syndrome when compared to a reference sequence (for example, human genome assembly 19). A “Tourette Syndrome copy number variant” is present in a higher or lower copy number in a subject with Tourette Syndrome or a subject with an increased risk of Tourette Syndrome compared to a subject not affected by Tourette Syndrome. The Tourette Syndrome copy number variant is in one embodiment inherited e.g. a germline mutation. In another embodiment, the copy number variant is sporadic.

In one embodiment, a “Tourette Syndrome copy number variant” is a duplication, i.e, a stretch of genomic sequence that is present in a higher copy number compared to a reference, or wild-type genomic sequence. In another embodiment, a “Tourette Syndrome copy number variant” is a deletion, i.e., a stretch of genomic sequence that is present in a lower copy number compared to a reference, or wild-type genomic sequence.

A reference genomic sequence is genomic DNA obtained from a subject who does not have Tourette syndrome or an increased risk of Tourette syndrome (also known as an “unaffected sample”). Reference genomic sequences include, but are not limited to, human genome sequences NA18507, NA10851, NA15510 NA07048 and human genome assemblies such as human genome assembly 19 (HG19).

In one embodiment, a “Tourette Syndrome copy number variant” is located on chromosome 2. In another embodiment, the “Tourette Syndrome copy number variant” is located at 2q14.3-q21.2. In another embodiment, the “Tourette Syndrome copy number variant” is located at 2q21.1-21.2. In another embodiment, a “Tourette Syndrome copy number variant” is found within the C2orf27A gene.

In one embodiment, a “Tourette syndrome copy number variant” is a 38 kb duplication located at chromosome 2q21.1 within the genomic region corresponding chr2:13205299-132343808 of human genome assembly 19 (HG19).

In another embodiment, a “Tourette syndrome copy number variant” is a 131 kb duplication located at chromosome 2q21.1 within the genomic region corresponding to chr2:132395155-132526804 of human genome assembly 19 (HG19).

In another embodiment, a “Tourette syndrome copy number variant” is a partial 30 kb duplication located at chromosome 2q21.1 within the genomic region corresponding to chr2:132480185-132510827 of human genome assembly 19 (HG19).

The term “corresponding to” as used herein means situated in a different sequence position but having sequence characteristics in common, including identical, or substantially identical, nucleotide sequence flanking the mutation (eg. substantial identity is optionally at least 75% identity over four or more contiguous nucleotides). For example, “genomic region corresponding to chr2: 132305299-132343808 of human genome assembly 19” refers to a genomic region that is equivalently situated in terms of flanking sequence and relative position to chr2: 132305299-132343808 of human genome assembly 19 but that may be identified by a different genomic position in a different genome assembly or reference sequence. Further “corresponding to” can refer to derived from or related to, for example a nucleic acid corresponding to a gene refers to a nucleic acid derived from the gene such as a transcript and/or an amplified or synthetic copy related to the gene.

The terms “risk” and “increased risk” as used herein refer to a subject having a predisposition to developing a disease e.g. increased risk compared to the average risk of a population. The predisposition is optionally inherited, or optionally acquired (e.g. sporadic mutation). The increased risk is relative to a subject not having a Tourette Syndrome copy number variant.

The term “sample” and “sample of a subject” as used herein refer to any sample of a subject that comprises nucleic acids, for example genomic DNA, and/or includes sequence or sequence data corresponding to genomic sequence. In one embodiment, the sample comprises blood, whole blood or a fraction thereof. In another embodiment, the sample is selected from the group consisting of fresh tissue such as a biopsy, frozen tissue and paraffin embedded tissue.

The term “subject” as used herein includes all members of the animal kingdom including multicellular organisms, including mammals, and preferably means humans.

Tourette Syndrome can be difficult to diagnose. The inventors have determined that the methods described herein identify individuals presymptomatically. Accordingly, in one embodiment, the individual is presymptomatic.

As used herein, “a relative” or “blood relation” is a relative genetically related, or related by birth, and includes without limitation 1^(st), 2^(nd), 3^(rd), 4^(th), 5^(th), 6^(th), 7^(th), 8^(th), 9^(th) and 10^(th) degree relations, for example but not limited to parents, children, grandchildren, grandparents, cousins and/or 2^(nd) cousins related by blood.

Isolated Nucleic Acids and Compositions

Tourette Syndrome copy number variants are readily detected using isolated nucleic acids and/or compositions comprising isolated nucleic acids that are specific for a Tourette Syndrome copy number variant.

Accordingly in one aspect, the application provides isolated nucleic acids useful for detecting Tourette Syndrome copy number variants and compositions and reagents comprising isolated nucleic acids useful for detecting Tourette Syndrome copy number variants. Another aspect provides an isolated nucleic acid molecule comprising a nucleic acid sequence comprising a Tourette Syndrome copy number variant or a portion thereof.

The term “isolated nucleic acid sequence” and/or “oligonucleotide” as used herein refers to a nucleic acid substantially free of cellular material or culture medium when produced by recombinant DNA techniques, or chemical precursors, or other chemicals when chemically synthesized. The term “nucleic acid” and/or “oligonucleotide” as used herein refers to a sequence of nucleotide or nucleoside monomers consisting of naturally occurring bases, sugars, and intersugar (backbone) linkages, and is intended to include DNA and RNA which can be either double stranded or single stranded and represent the sense or antisense strand.

One aspect of the application provides an isolated nucleic acid molecule, wherein the isolated nucleic acid molecule hybridizes to:

(a) a Tourette Syndrome copy number variant or a portion thereof;

(b) a nucleic acid sequence complementary to a); and/or

(c) a nucleic acid sequence corresponding to a).

Optionally, the Tourette Syndrome copy number variant comprises genomic sequence chromosome 2, optionally with region 2q21.1-21.2. In one embodiment, the Tourette Syndrome copy number variant corresponds to chr2:132395155-132526804, chr2:132305299-132343808 or chr2:132480185-132510827 of human genome assembly 19.

In one embodiment, the isolated nucleic acid molecule is a probe or a primer used to detect a Tourette Syndrome copy number variant.

The hybridization is optionally under high or medium stringency conditions. Appropriate stringency conditions which promote hybridization are known to those skilled in the art, or can be found in Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, John Wiley & Sons, N.Y. (1989), 6.3.1 6.3.6. High and medium stringency hybridization conditions are also described herein.

In an embodiment, the isolated nucleic acid molecule is useful as a primer. The term “primer” as used herein refers to a nucleic acid sequence, whether occurring naturally as in a purified restriction digest or produced synthetically, which is capable of acting as a point of synthesis when placed under conditions in which synthesis of a primer extension product, which is complementary to a nucleic acid strand is induced (e.g. in the presence of nucleotides and an inducing agent such as DNA polymerase and at a suitable temperature and pH). The primer must be sufficiently long to prime the synthesis of the desired extension product in the presence of the inducing agent. The exact length of the primer will depend upon factors, including temperature, sequences of the primer and the methods used. A primer typically contains 15-25 or more nucleotides, although it can contain less, for example, up to 5, 10, 12 or 15 nucleotides. The factors involved in determining the appropriate length of primer are readily known to one of ordinary skill in the art.

In one embodiment, the primers hybridize under medium or high stringency conditions to the Tourette Syndrome copy number variants described herein and allow amplification of a Tourette Syndrome copy number variant or a portion thereof. As used in relation to a primer, “a portion thereof” of a Tourette Syndrome copy number variant refers to a portion sufficient to prime amplification of the intended template.

In another embodiment, the application describes probes that are useful for detecting a Tourette Syndrome copy number variant.

The term “probe” as used herein refers to a nucleic acid sequence that will hybridize to a nucleic acid target sequence. In one example, the probe hybridizes to a Tourette Syndrome copy number variant or a nucleic acid sequence complementary to Tourette Syndrome copy number variant. The length of probe depends on the hybridization conditions and the sequences of the probe and nucleic acid target sequence. In one embodiment, the probe is at least 8, 10, 15, 20, 25, 50, 75, 100, 150, 200, 250, 400, 500 or more nucleotides in length. As used in relation to a probe, “a portion thereof” of a Tourette Syndrome copy number variant refers to a portion sufficient to specifically hybridize to the intended template.

Another aspect of the application provides an isolated nucleic acid molecule which has at least 75, 80, 85, 90, 95 or 99% sequence identity to a Tourette Syndrome copy number variant or a portion thereof. In another embodiment, an isolated nucleic acid molecule is provided which has at least 75, 80, 85, 90, 95 or 99% sequence identity to the complement of a Tourette Syndrome copy number variant or a portion thereof.

The term “sequence identity” as used herein refers to the percentage of sequence identity between two nucleic acid sequences. To determine the percent identity of two nucleic acid sequences, the sequences are aligned for optimal comparison purposes (e.g., gaps can be introduced in the sequence of a nucleic acid sequence for optimal alignment with a second nucleic acid sequence). The nucleotides at corresponding nucleotide positions are then compared. When a position in the first sequence is occupied by the same nucleotide as the corresponding position in the second sequence, then the molecules are identical at that position. The percent identity between the two sequences is a function of the number of identical positions shared by the sequences (i.e., % identity=number of identical overlapping positions/total number of positions.times.100%). In one embodiment, the two sequences are the same length. The determination of percent identity between two sequences can also be accomplished using a mathematical algorithm. A preferred, non-limiting example of a mathematical algorithm utilized for the comparison of two sequences is the algorithm of Karlin and Altschul, 1990, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci, U.S.A. 87:2264-2268, modified as in Karlin and Altschul, 1993, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 90:5873-5877. Such an algorithm is incorporated into the NBLAST and XBLAST programs of Altschul et al., 1990, J. Mol. Biol. 215:403. BLAST nucleotide searches can be performed with the NBLAST nucleotide program parameters set, e.g., for score=100, wordlength=12 to obtain nucleotide sequences homologous to a nucleic acid molecules of the present application. To obtain gapped alignments for comparison purposes, Gapped BLAST can be utilized as described in Altschul et al., 1997, Nucleic Acids Res, 25:3389-3402, Alternatively, PSI-BLAST can be used to perform an iterated search which detects distant relationships between molecules (Id.). When utilizing BLAST, Gapped BLAST, and PSI-Blast programs, the default parameters of the respective programs (e.g., of XBLAST and NBLAST) can be used (see, e.g., the NCBI website), The percent identity between two sequences can be determined using techniques similar to those described above, with or without allowing gaps. In calculating percent identity, typically only exact matches are counted.

In certain embodiments the isolated nucleic acid comprises a detectable label, such as a fluorescent or radioactive label.

Another aspect of the disclosure provides a reagent for detecting and/or amplifying a Tourette Syndrome copy number variant, such as the isolated nucleic acid primers described herein.

In one embodiment, a reagent for detecting a Tourette Syndrome copy number variant comprises an isolated nucleic acid molecule comprising:

a) an isolated nucleic acid molecule, wherein the isolated nucleic acid molecule hybridizes to a Tourette Syndrome copy number variant or a portion thereof; or

b) a nucleic acid molecule with at least 80%, 90%, 95%, or 99% sequence identity to a), characterized in that the nucleic add molecule is capable of binding a Tourette Syndrome copy number variant under stringent conditions.

Detecting Tourette Syndrome Copy Number Variants

A person skilled in the art will appreciate that a number of methods are useful for detecting the presence of a Tourette Syndrome copy number variant. For example a variety of techniques are known in the art for detecting copy number variants within a sample of nucleic acid, including, but not limited to, PCR, RT-PCR, QF-PCR, fluorescent in situ hydridization (FISH) and microarray analysis,

A Tourette Syndrome Copy number variant is optionally detected using the microarrays described herein which are designed to detect copy number variants.

In one embodiment, genomic DNA from a test subject who may have Tourette syndrome or be at a risk of Tourette Syndrome is optionally labeled with a first fluorophore, optionally Cy3 or Cy5, and the genomic DNA from a reference subject or a reference genome is optionally labeled with a second fluorophore, optionally Cy3 or Cy5. The labeled DNA is competitively hybridized to a microarray chip comprising oligonucleotide probes complementary to a Tourette Syndrome critical region. Differential binding of the test genomic DNA sample and a reference genomic DNA sample to at least one oligonucleotide probe complementary to a Tourette Syndrome critical region indicates a Tourette Syndrome copy number variant. For example, higher binding of the test genomic DNA sample than the reference genomic DNA sample to at least one oligonucleotide probe indicates a duplication associated with Tourette Syndrome and higher binding of the reference genomic DNA sample than the test genomic DNA sample to at least one oligonucleotide probe indicates a deletion associated with Tourette Syndrome.

In another embodiment, a Tourette Syndrome copy number variant is optionally detected using Quantitative Fluorescent PCR (QF-PCR). Using this method, primers are used to amplify genomic sequence contained with a Tourette Syndrome copy number variant such as the Tourette Syndrome copy number variants described herein. A person of skill in the art could readily design primers to amplify a copy number variant. The primers are used to amplify genomic sequence from a test subject and a reference standard (for example a reference sequence such as human genome assembly 19). QF-PCR is used to analyze the amount of nucleic acid amplified from the test subject and the reference standard. An increase in amplified sequence from the test subject compared to the reference standard indicates a duplication in the test subject. A decrease in amplified sequence from the test subject compared to the reference standard indicates a deletion in the test subject.

In one embodiment, Tourette Syndrome copy number variants are first detected using a microarray, and then the copy number variant is confirmed using a secondary method such as QF-PCR.

Kits

Another aspect of the disclosure is a kit for screening for, diagnosing the presence of, or detecting a risk of developing, Tourette Syndrome. In one embodiment, the kit comprises one or more isolated nucleic acid molecules and/or reagents described herein and instructions for use. In another embodiment, the kit comprises one or more isolated nucleic acid molecules and/or reagents described herein and a container for holding or storing the isolated nucleic acid molecules and/or reagents

In an embodiment the kit comprises an isolated nucleic acid molecule or composition that specifically hybridizes to Tourette Syndrome copy number variant, e.g. a probe or a primer. In an embodiment the nucleic acid molecule sequence is complementary to a Tourette Syndrome copy number variant or a portion thereof or the complement thereof. In another embodiment, the nucleic acid molecule comprises a detectable label such as a fluorescent molecule. In a further embodiment, the kit comprises an isolated nucleic acid molecule useful as a primer.

In certain embodiments, the kit is a diagnostic kit for medical use. In other embodiments, the kit is a diagnostic kit for laboratory use.

In another aspect the disclosure provides a commercial package comprising an isolated nucleic acid or reagent described herein and instructions for use.

The following non-limiting examples are illustrative of the present disclosure:

EXAMPLES

Embodiments of the disclosure will be illustrated in a non-limiting way by reference to the examples below.

Example 1 Identification of “Rearrangement Hotspots” within Segmental Duplications in Humans Detection of Segmental Duplication (SD) Units

Given that SDs intuitively consist of common repeat elements, SDs were fragmented into multiple smaller SD units which did not overlap with known repeat elements during the read depth-based analysis. In this study, 20,237 non-redundant sets of SD units with at least one inter- or intra-chromosomal rearrangement event were identified, representing 16.65 Mbp of SD units residing outside of common repeat elements in the human genome. At first glance, this total content of SDs may appear small compared with that previously reported [Bailey J A et al, (2002)] and that reported in the database of genomic variants (DGV) which is mainly attributed to methodological differences (i.e., exclusion of common repeats, GC-correction, shorter window length, low read depth threshold). Results from this study and Perry at al [Perry H G at al. (2008)], suggest that previously reported SD breakpoints are overinflated in size, further emphasizing the importance of creating a high-resolution map of ‘rearrangement hotspots’. Read depth distribution for duplicated and non-duplicated regions throughout the genome produced a distinctive distribution pattern with an approximate 7% error rate.

Considering CNVs have a tendency to overlap with nearby SD breakpoints, the results of this study were compared with a recent study which identified common CNV breakpoints in three populations (i.e., 57 Yoruba, 48 European and 54 Asian individuals) [Sudmant P H, 2010]. The detected autosomal SD units greater than 200 by shared 82% concordance (i.e., >50% overlap) with common CNV breakpoints using low coverage short-read data. Moreover, 79% of breakpoints residing within genes with >3 copies as previously reported [Alkan C, 2009], were located within SD breakpoints identified in this study.

Comparison with previous read depth-based reports highlights the advantages of the present hierarchical strategy which include: 1) the use of a 100 by read depth window with a 1 by overlap to detect SD units which enabled the capacity to detect SD units with higher resolution; 2) the use of a lower threshold (i.e., mean+2 standard deviations) than previously reported methods in order to detect homozygous and hemizygous duplications; 3) fragmentation of SDs into smaller SD units in order to separate duplicated regions from common repeated elements while reducing alignment bias for rearrangement analysis and computational time; and 4) integration of end space alignment algorithm with a ‘seed and extend’ clustering technique to the duplicated region of the reference guided assembly sequences to perform an exhaustive search (i.e., 409 million alignments) to identify rearrangement breakpoints.

Compared with copy number gains identified using microarray analysis [Conrad, D F et al. (2010)], sequencing data used in this study revealed that autosomal SD unit breakpoints overlapped 54% with copy number gains [Conrad, D F at al. (2010)], which increased to 67% when compared with 43× coverage [Sudmant P H et al. (2010)]]. Discrepancies are attributed to methodical biases, as detection of structural variants can be specific to different methodical approaches and discrepancies between methods can be as high as 80% [Alkan C et al. (2011)]. The rearrangement analysis within the novel sequence revealed multiple hits within the duplicated sequences (i.e., >90% similarity) that were previously uncharacterized.

Characterization of Rearrangement Hotspots Within Segmental Duplications

Using 409 million pai/vise alignments, 1963 complex SD units or ‘rearrangement hotspots’ within SDs in the human genome with significantly high distribution of duplicons (p<1.0×10⁻⁶) with at least 10 duplicons per SD unit were identified (FIG. 2 a and Table 1). Within these regions, an increase in copy number gain (i.e., increase of 62% in copy number gains within hotspots) with at least 50% overlap with SD units and CNV breakpoints has been observed compared with a previous report [Conrad, D F et al. (2010)]. Importantly, 25% of these ‘rearrangement hotspots’ (i.e., 489/1963) overlapped with 166 unique genes (FIG. 2 b) of which 77% (i.e., 375/489) were contained within 82 genes with increased copy number gain that have been previously validated using microarray analysis [Conrad, D F et al. (2010)]. That 25 of these genes are highly variable in copy number within three populations indicates population-specific frequency of the underlying events in the origin of CNVs [Sudmant P H et al. (2010)] which, in turn, implies an increase in frequency of genomic rearrangement events within hotspot regions. However, the extent of gene conversion within the NAHR hotspot is still unknown. Also observed was a relative increase of gene content transfer within agenic hotspot regions (i.e., approximately 50%) compared with the remainder of agenic non-hotspot duplicated regions (i.e., 32%) (FIG. 2 c). The finding of elevated levels of gene content transfer is consistent with a previous study which hypothesized such a finding as an apparent feature for hotspots arising from homologous recombination [Gu W et al. (2008)]. Further analysis on duplicated gene variants (DNVs), which is a special type of paralogous sequence variant, was compared between the hotspot and non-hotspot duplicated regions [Ho MR at al. (2010)]. A 3-fold increase in DNVs located within hotspots compared with the remainder of the duplicated regions (p<0.0001) was observed which implies greater diversity within hotspot regions. This finding is attributed, in part, to the accumulation of DNV-derived mutations among derivative homologous sequences within hotspot regions. A strong positive correlation (R²=0.63) between the length and the incidence of DNVs within hotspot regions was also observed (FIG. 2 d). Genome-wide read depth comparison revealed that a subset of high read depth regions are positively correlated with rearrangement hotspots (FIG. 2 e).

Distribution of Inter- and Intra-Chromosomal Rearrangements

Segmental duplications (SDs) can be categorized according to the location of the rearrangement considering that recombination events can occur between homologues (i.e, inter-chromosomal) or by looping out within a single homologue (i.e., intra-chromosomal). The analysis revealed that 7% of genes (i.e., 1,626/22,159) overlapped with 5,502 non-redundant SD units which represented 73% (i.e., 41/56) of the most highly variable genes previously identified in the human genome within three populations [Sudmant P H at al. (2010)] (FIG. 2 b). 91,971 duplicons (i.e., average of 4.5 duplicons per SD unit) with overlapping breakpoints throughout the SD regions were observed. Extreme inter- and intra-chromosomal rearrangements occurred in 10% of genes (i.e., 166/1626) that overlapped with SD units, of which 50% have been previously validated [Conrad, D F at al. (2010)]. Further analysis revealed that genic regions were enriched with intra-chromosomal recombination, whereas agenic regions evolved through both inter- and intra-chromosomal recombination. Such intra-chromosomal recombination within genic SD units may represent conserved genomic organizations subject to gene conversion and concerted evolution [Bailey J A, 2002; Gu W, 2008; Lieber M R, 2003]. Extreme variation, attributed in part, to SDs has been reported in at least 20% of the copy number variable gene families in three human populations [Sudmant P H et al. (2010)].

Previous cytogenetic studies have demonstrated that pericentromeric and subtelomeric SD regions are strikingly polymorphic and both represent hotbeds for genomic rearrangement [Mefford H et al. (2002) and She X et al. (2004)]. Investigation of recombination within SD units revealed that pericentromeric regions of chromosomes 2, 5, 7, 10, 15, 16, 17, 22 and Y were enriched with inter-chromosomal recombination, whereas only chromosome 11 was associated with intra-chromosomal breakpoints. Subtelomeric regions of chromosomes 1, 2, 4, 7, 9, 10, 11, 16, 19, 20, 22, and X were enriched with inter-chromosomal recombination, whereas chromosomes 3, 6, 12, 13, 14 and Y were associated with extreme intra-chromosomal breakpoints. This idiosyncratic rearrangement pattern suggests that multiple translocations involving distal regions of chromosomes create complex breakpoints within SDs. This is exemplified by the pseudoautosomal region 1 (PAR1) which displayed extensive inter- and intra-chromosomal tandem duplications, consistent with sex chromosome evolution. Another complex region where extensive intra-chromosomal rearrangements were identified is the distal heterochromatic region of the Y chromosome (i.e., Yq12), housing the male specific (MSY) region. In the analysis, both homozygous and hemizygous duplications were detected using read depth information which represents an extension to previous SD analysis [Sudmant P H et al. (2010) and Alkan C et al. (2009)] by the inclusion of sex chromosomes.

Complex rearrangements in multiple gene families where rapid evolution of NBPF, PRAME, RGPD, GAGE, LRRC, TBC1, NPIP and TRIM gene families were identified. Without being bound by theory, this appears to be predominantly attributed to intra-chromosomal gene transfer, whereas other complex gene families (e.g., ANKRD, OR, GUSB, FAM, POTE, ZNF and GOLG) appear to be more diverse with respect to transfer of gene content, occurring both within and between chromosomes. As previously reported [Alkan C et al, (2009)], the DUX family gene was associated with the most copies within the reference genome. The rearrangement analysis of the novel sequence within 10q26.3 region suggests at least 10 additional copies of the DUX4 gene is specific to novel sequences within the NA18507 human genome.

Gene Ontology Analysis within ‘Rearrangement Hotspots’

To investigate the impact of genes residing within ‘rearrangement hotspot’ regions identified in this study and theft relation to complex disease, genes were functionally categorized using PANTHER gene ontology analysis. Genes residing within ‘rearrangement hotspot’ regions appear to be involved in functions associated primarily with nucleic acid metabolism (22%) and cellular processes (16%), although associations also exist for developmental process (9%), cell cycle (9%), and cell communication (8%). This finding is consistent with a previous report in which copy number gains were associated with genes involved in nucleic acid metabolism and developmental processes, whereas copy number losses were enriched for genes involved in cell adhesion [Park H et al. (2010)]. That genes residing in ‘rearrangement hotspot’ regions are consistently associated with functions affecting multiple processes important in normal growth and development, further underscores the critical role that rearrangement hotspots play in the genetic etiology of complex disease.

Clinical Relevance of ‘Rearrangement Hotspots’

A genome-wide high resolution map of ‘rearrangement hotspots’ has been produced. Without being bound by theory, these ‘rearrangement hotspots’ likely serve as templates for NAHR and consequently may represent an underlying mechanism for development of constitutional and acquired diseases arising from de novo deletions or duplications. A collection of 24 previously identified genomic disorders predominantly mediated by de novo NAHR events are catalogued in the DECIPHER database [DECIPHER Genomic Aberration Database: http://decipher.sanger.ac.uki]. Comparison of the hotspot regions identified in the present study with pathogenic deletions/duplications breakpoints mapped for those genomic disorders constituting only 15 common genomic loci revealed that 20% of the detected hotspots are clustered within proximal and distal SDs that are flanked by these pathogenic deletions/duplications (FIG. 3). This finding indicates a higher rate of NAHR within the genome-wide rearrangement hotspot regions detected in this study.

The rearrangement structure of these hotspots based on the present in silico predictions (FIG. 4) reveals the complex architecture associated with SDs. To validate the complexity of these hotspots, FISH analysis was performed on selected regions harbouring hotspot clusters demonstrated 94% (i.e., 17/18) concordance with in silico predictions of co-localization (FIGS. 5 a, 5 b, and 6). One example of an identified ‘rearrangement hotspot’ is a duplication at the 16p12.1 complex region, which contains an 32 inversion [Park H et al. (2010)], where the alignment localized multiple derivatives of the NPIPL3 gene within chromosomes 16 and 18 (FIG. 5 a). The identified breakpoints revealed the presence of derivative copies of the NPIPL3 gene within the short arm of chromosomes 16 and 18, possibly attributed to NAHR-mediated recombination, where pathogenic deletions and duplications have been reported in patients with mental retardation and intellectual disability [Antonacci F et al. (2010); Nagarnani S C et al. (2011); Heinzen E L et al. (2010); Weiss L A et al. (2008); Walters R G et al. (2010); Ballif B C et al. (2007); and Tokutomi T et al. (2009)]. The derivatives are located within the pathogenic deletion breakpoints among the patients with neurodevelopment disorders. Unfortunately, these studies used methodologies unable to localize derivative copies, and consequently the NPIPL3 gene was disregarded as a susceptibility gene. A second complex region, 22q11.21, housed a large duplication consisting of two copies, with the ‘core duplicon’ being copied multiple times in chromosomes 5, 6, 20 and 22 (FIG. 5 b). Phenotypes attributed to pathogenic deletions and duplications within chromosomes 5 and 22 [Ensenauer R E et al. (2003) and Huang X S et al. (2010)] revealed breakpoint patterns within a ‘core duplicon’, suggestive of NAHR-mediated duplication.

A third complex region, revealed a previously uncharacterized gene desert within 1q21 indicating a possible harvest region for the NBPF gene family. This 68 Kbp gene desert region revealed extreme intra-chromosomal rearrangement without any signature of inter-chromosomal duplication in our in silico analysis (FIG. 6). The gene fragments from NBPF1,3,9,10,14,15,16,20 and 24 appear to be copied and transferred to 1q21.1 (142867911-142935940) and consequently creating extreme overlapping tandem duplications. The fosmid clone G248P8712C10 covering this region was used on metaphase chromosomes to predict derivative duplicated loci. Multiple signals were obtained within 1p36.12 and 1q21.1 regions, while a weak signal was obtained within the 1p10p13 region which was not detected by our in silica analysis. The donor region located 2 Mb distal from the gene desert transferred gene content to this 68 kbp region which is associated with recurrent pathogenic deletions and duplications implicated in developmental disorders and neuroblastoma [DECIPHER Genomic Aberration Database: http://decipher.sanger.ac.uk/; Diskin S J at al. (2009); and Brunetti-Pierri N at al. (2008)]. Without being bound by theory, gene deserts may represent reservoirs for creation of novel genes and underscores the necessity to further explore this previously ignored region of the human genome. The complexity of tandem duplications (e.g., 1q21.1) can have a direct impact on estimating copy number for a gene (e.g., NBPF). In such cases, the estimation of copy number based solely on read depth may be affected due to the nature of the tandem duplication.

Materials and Methods

Data Acquisition and Processing

Short read data was obtained for the NA18507 human genome sequenced using reversible terminator chemistry on an Illumina Genome Analyzer [Bently D R, 2008]. The original data consisted of >30× coverage of the genome. More than half of the data was obtained from the Short Read Archive Provisional FTP (NCBK) site (ftp://ftp.ncbi.nih.gov/pub/TraceDB/ShortRead/SRA000271/) with an average read length of approximately 36 bp. The analysis accuracy of this dataset has been previously described [Bently D R et al. (2008)]. The 4.8 Mb novel sequence detected in the NA18507 genome by a previous de novo assembly was also integrated in our rearrangement analysis. The length distribution revealed that the contigs/scaffolds are over fragmented and >80% of the sequence length is <1 kb in length. The NA18507 human genome was selected as it is representative of the ancestral African Euroban population which has been previously shown to contain the most diverse polymorphisms compared with other populations [Sudmant P H et al. (2010) and Alkan C et al. (2009)], rendering it an ideal sample to generate a ‘rearrangement hotspot’ map as the majority of the hotspot regions detected should exist within other populations.

Short Read Mapping

mrsFAST (micro-read substitution only fast alignment search tool—version 2.3.0.2) was applied which implements an all-to-all algorithm unlike other short read mapping algorithms [Hach F et al. (2010)]. Specifically, it is a fast alignment search tool which uses cache oblivious short read mapping algorithm to align short reads in an individual genome against a repeat masked reference human genome within a user-specified number of mismatches. The short reads were mapped using mrsFAST with a maximum of two mismatches allowed against the repeat masked (UCSC hg18) genome assembly. mrsFAST returns all possible hits in the genome for a short read, allowing the detection of differential read depth distribution within duplicated regions of the human genome. Using the NA18507 human genome (18× coverage), 1.5 billion short reads were processed with 55.78% (i.e., ˜839 million short reads) mapped to the repeat masked human reference genome with the mrsFAST aligner which returned all possible mapping locations of a read; a key requirement to accurately predicting the duplicated regions within the reference genome.

GC Correction

There exists a known bias with next generation sequencing technology towards GC-rich and GC-poor regions. Moreover, during library preparation using an illumina Genome Analyzer, amplification artefacts are introduced in both GC-poor and GC-rich regions producing an uneven distribution of read coverage [Alkan C et al. (2009)] which has the potential of detecting false positive duplicated regions. To reduce this bias, a simple GC correction method was used. Overlapping windows (i.e., by 1 bp) with length ‘/’ was used for read depth computation. Each read was assigned only once by its starting position and read depth was computed for each chromosomal position. The original mean read depth was calculated for each length (i.e., 100 bp) block using equation (1). G+C percentage for every 100 by window from the reference human genome and the read depth was computed and subsequently interrogated for adjustment. The adjusted read depth was computed using the following equation:

$\begin{matrix} {{RD}_{i},{{adjusted} = {{RD}_{i} \times \frac{m\; 1}{m\; 2}}}} & (1) \end{matrix}$

where RD_(i), adjusted is the read depth after GC correction, RD_(i) is the original read depth computed for i^(th) window, m1 is the overall median of all the windows with 100 by length and m2 is the mean depth for all windows with same GC percentage. All subsequent analysis was carried out on the GC-corrected read depth.

Read Depth (RD) and Interval Detection

The first step in dissecting SD unit breakpoints using the NA18507 genome from all hit map information was to compute read depth from short read sequence mapping and detect SD intervals that do not overlap with a repeat region of the genome. Read depth was computed for each point after obtaining mapped anchoring positions of the short reads from mrsFAST. A table was built for each chromosome, each containing coordinates where the common repeats are located. The read depth mean was computed for a chromosome from the genome content excluding common repeat regions. For each window with l length (100 bp) an event was determined. Events with excessive read depth and with a deletion were detected using equation (2).

$\begin{matrix} {{{event}(l)} = \left\{ \begin{matrix} {2({ExcessiveRD})} & {{{if}\mspace{14mu} {\sum\limits_{k = 0}^{l}{RD}}} \geq {{mean} + {2 \times {{st}.d}}}} \\ {0({Deletion})} & {{{if}\mspace{14mu} {RD}} < 1} \\ 1 & {{otherwise};} \end{matrix} \right.} & (2) \end{matrix}$

To investigate the interrogating window if it falls within a common repeat elements, a library for the repeat masked regions (masked interspersed repeats, i.e. LINES, SINES, etc.) of the human genome was built. The mean length of the detected SD units was 822 bp. The read depth distribution between the detected duplication subunits and the non-duplicated regions of the genome show significant read depth differences with an approximately 7% error rate.

NA18507 Short Read Reference Guided Assembly

The current version of mrsFAST does not return the quality of the aligned reads within a consensus genome. Instead, MAQ version 0.7.1 (Mapping and Assembly with Quality) was used which assembles genomes with a specified quality. MAQ searches for the un-gapped match with lowest mismatch score (i.e., maximum of 2) in the first 28 bp. To confidently map alignments, MAQ assigns each alignment a Phred scaled quality score which measures the probability that the true alignment is not the alignment that is detected by MAQ. If a short read maps to multiple positions in the genome, MAQ will randomly pick one position and give the excluded position a mapping quality of zero. The NA18507 genome short reads were mapped and assembled into the reference genome using MAQ allowing at most 2 mismatches.

Detection of Genomic Re-Arrangements

Using read depth as a measure to detect SD unit breakpoints may produce regions that share <90% sequence identity. To reduce false positive and computational burden after detecting SD unit breakpoints, a basic version of the end space alignment algorithm (without seed and extend approach) was utilized and a pairwise alignment for each of the SD units against the rest of the genome SD units was performed. Only those SD units for rearrangement analysis described in the following section that contained at least one duplicon >100 by with >90% sequence identity were included. 20,237 SD units when every 100 by window was assessed for a possible rearrangement were detected.

End-Space Free Alignment Algorithm

The ability to detect highly homologous regions between two sequences is essential for duplicon detection. Multiple clusters of non-adjacent duplicons with >90% sequence identity cannot be mapped using basic alignment algorithms. As previously reported, the basic pairwise global alignment algorithm will miss duplicon breakpoints that are non-adjacent within an SD with different thresholds of sequence identity [6]. Semi-global alignment has a tendency to produce pattern-like alignments (see example below), which are not informative for complex regions with multiple duplications. A modified version of the pairwise alignment algorithm was implemented where the alignments are scored ignoring end spaces of the two sequences. Adding the option of end spaces in our alignment does not produce pattern-like alignments and therefore accurately pinpoints the breakpoints of the duplicon with an allowed gap that crosses the threshold of >90% sequence identity. The neutral rate of evolutionary decay suggests that 10% sequence divergence is required to accurately detect duplications that are primate-specific [Gu W et al. (2008)].

Example

S1: (SEQ ID NO: 1) ACGCAATTCGACTAGATCGGGTCGATGATCGATCGATGATCGAGACA GCATAGCAG S2: (SEQ ID NO: 2) CAATTCGACTAGATCGATCGACGATCGATCGAT Semi-Global Alignment: S1: (SEQ ID NO: 1) ACGCAATTCGACTAGATCGGGTCGATGATCGATCGATGATCGAGACAGC ATAGCAG S2: (SEQ ID NO: 3) ***CAATTCGACTAGATC*GATC***GA*CGATC***GAT*****C*G* AT***** End-Space Free Alignment: S1: (SEQ ID NO: 4) CAATTCGACTAGATCGGGTCGATGATCGATCGAT S2: (SEQ ID NO: 5) CAATTCGACTAGATC*GATCGACGATCGATCGAT

In order to implement the algorithm, a dynamic programming technique was utilized which is a modified version of Smith-Waterman dynamic programming [Smith I F et al. (1981)]. This approach will detect the pairwise alignment relative to a penalty function corresponding to semi-global alignment. The dynamic programming (DP) algorithm was used to compute the above alignments and the backtrack pointer was used to identify the best alignment.

Dynamic Programming Matrix and Recursive Trace Back

As a core searching algorithm, a penalty function was implemented to complete the dynamic programming matrix M. First, the first column and row was initialized with zeroes which provided forgiving spaces at the beginning of the sequences in order to obtain the highest similarity between the interrogated sequences. The intention was to locate duplicons between a pair of sequences (i.e., s and t) with >90% identity and alignment with minimal gaps to avoid pattern-like structures. “A” was encoded with 1, “G” with 2. “C” with 3 and “T” with 4 to construct the (m+1)×(n+1) DP matrix M, where m and n is the length of two given sequences s and t, respectively. The algorithm uses a dynamic programming technique to fill a matrix M by a look up penalty function from the 5×5 matrix C. A penalty function g(i,j) was introduced for matched alignment with a score of 2. For the mismatches between a pair of bases, a penalty of −2 was introduced for mismatch and −3 for misaligned sequence produced by sequence assembly tools (i.e., MAQ). A −3 penalty was used to reduce the amount of misaligned portions of the sequence into duplicon identification. To allow the algorithm to ignore the end positions of the sequences if it has low similarity, a trace back from the highest value returned by function Sim(s,t) in the matrix M was performed. For any two given sequences (i.e., s and t), a semi-global alignment is an alignment between a substring (in this case duplicon) of s and t.

$\begin{matrix} {{a\left\lbrack {i,j} \right\rbrack} = {\max \left\{ \begin{matrix} {{a\left\lbrack {i,{j - 1}} \right\rbrack} - 3} \\ {{a\left\lbrack {{i - 1},{j - 1}} \right\rbrack} + {g\left( {{i - 1},{j - 1}} \right)}} \\ {{a\left\lbrack {{i - 1},j} \right\rbrack} - 3} \end{matrix} \right.}} & (3) \\ {{{Sim}\left( {s,t} \right)} = {\max \mspace{14mu} {of}\mspace{14mu} M}} & (4) \end{matrix}$

The memory requirement to fill out DP matrix M is O(mn). The computational time to complete the dynamic programming Matrix M and to determine the maximum value in M for a given pair of sequence s and t with nearly similar length is O(n²) and to trace back starting from the maximum point in the matrix takes O(m+n) time to obtain optimal alignment.

It might be apparent that ignoring end spaces might not detect true breakpoints and for long sequences it might produce really short alignments. Considering that majority of the commonly used alignment search methods (i.e., BLAST, BLAT, and SHRiMP) implement a “seed and extend” method to obtain faster sequence comparison [Altschul S F, 1990; Kent 2002; Yanovsky V, 2008; Mi, 2010], this method was also applied in this study. To perform an exhaustive search within the scope of 100 by windows for any two given segmental unit sequences obtained from NA18507 genome, the dynamic programming algorithm for each 100 by window with 10 by overlaps as “seeds” was applied. The highly similar seeds (>90%) went through the “extend” step and the rest was ignored. As this approach might detect the same breakpoints multiple times if multiple seeding events are obtained from a highly duplicated region, the previously extended duplicon breakpoints from the same SD unit and the overlapping “seeds” was compared and only the maximum extended duplicon was kept. ‘Extend’ is a recursive procedure which extends bi-directionally by 10 bp and the extend step ceases in each direction when further extension does not cross the sequence identity threshold. As a result, the procedure terminates if any further extension of both directions returns <90% sequence identity.

FISH Validation

Cytogenetic preparations were made from lymphoblastoid culture (obtained from Coriell cell repositories) for the NA18507 sample. The cell suspension was dropped on slides using a thermotone, aged overnight and hybridized with test (i.e., spectrum orange) and control probes. Following post-hybridization washes and 4,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAP1) counterstaining, slides were analyzed using fluorescence microscopy. Pseudocoloring and image editing was performed using Photoshop software. To validate duplicon rearrangement within SD units, three complex regions in the human genome: 1q21.1, 16p12.1 and 22q11.21 were selected. In this study, fosmid genomic clones corresponding to a duplicated locus as a probe against chromosomal metaphase were used. The localization of FISH clones within these regions and the corresponding derivative loci validated >94% (i.e., 17/18) of the in silico co-localization predictions. The FISH technique was unable to provide a precise estimate of rearrangement at the level of 100 bp due to resolution limitations.

Permutation

The basic analyses were conducted using a permutation procedure to assess statistical significance of 1-sided tests. The rearrangement for each SD unit was permuted randomly between the two groups and test statistics was computed in each permutation. All results reported in this study used 1 million permutations to derive an empirical value.

Gene Ontology Analysis

Gene ontology data analysis was performed using PANTHER (version 7.0) database [Mi H et al. (2010)]. The biological processes of the hotspots genes were analyzed.

Example 2 Microarray Chips for Detecting Genomic Aberrations

A custom aCGH microarray was designed based on the rearrangement hotspots identified in Example 1. In all, approximately 500 MB of the human genomic sequence was covered within a 2×1 million probe (1 M) microarray. The Agilent custom microarray identification numbers are 035313 and 035316.

The genomic regions covered by the microarray were chosen as follows:

a) All the breakpoints (ie. “rearrangement hotspots”) identified in Example 1 were accommodated (Table 1).

b) The location of the hotspots and how far they are from each other was considered. If two hotspots were within 1 MB from each other, the entire region between the two hotspots was included.

c) Known CNV regions previously identified in the literature were included.

d) At least 1 MB of the telomeric and centromeric regions for all chromosomes were also included.

Probes were designed to be 45-60 basepairs in length. Probe spacing ranges between 190-500 by with a mean spacing of 280 by within each genomic region covered by the array.

Tables 2-5 contain the specific coordinates based on the NA18507 human genome corresponding to the 500 MB of genomic sequence covered by the microarray. In all, approximately 10% of the probes correspond to previously detected Copy Number Variants and 90% of the probes correspond to regions susceptible to genomic alteration as based on the computational analysis described above.

TABLE 1 1963 Rearrangement Hotspots. Chromosome coordinates correspond to the NA18507 human genome. chr start end 1 102428 103655 1 104523 105540 1 108919 109527 1 109802 110931 1 114730 115997 1 121334 122466 1 124255 128240 1 129970 130372 1 166300 167381 1 247579 248325 1 248747 249972 1 251288 251855 1 255240 255848 1 256123 257253 1 315614 318942 1 320610 322337 1 328559 328907 1 329466 331722 1 627628 628412 1 628793 630020 1 530725 631903 1 635288 635896 1 636171 637301 1 638039 640059 1 641087 642355 1 647698 648830 1 650621 653735 1 657032 657289 1 660440 660694 1 663849 664106 1 665689 666094 1 668071 668847 1 680877 681646 1 688405 689651 1 792445 794932 1 2573251 2576251 1 2576151 2579151 1 2579051 2582051 1 2581951 2584951 1 2584851 2587851 1 2587751 2590751 1 2590651 2593651 1 2593551 2596551 1 2596451 2599451 1 2599351 2602351 1 2602251 2605251 1 2605151 2608151 1 2608051 2611051 1 2610951 2613951 1 2613851 2616851 1 2616751 2624180 1 2675459 2683703 1 8876229 8877357 1 16762107 16768986 1 16773004 16777213 1 16779730 16783494 1 16786026 16789354 1 16790353 16791717 1 21623175 21627179 1 21677496 21683296 1 24193960 24194188 1 26674144 26675098 1 40571260 40571981 1 51488912 51489852 1 54775157 54775761 1 102024413 102026279 1 113243378 113243726 1 116200740 115202126 1 120835697 120836641 1 120836827 120338299 1 120338327 120840228 1 120842041 120842565 1 120842492 120343585 1 141629286 141632656 1 141638783 141642395 1 142025678 142029100 1 142031641 142032630 1 142035252 142038880 1 142241469 142245676 1 142867911 142870911 1 142870811 142873811 1 142873711 142876711 1 142876611 142879611 1 142879511 142882511 1 142882411 142885411 1 142885311 142888311 1 142888211 142391211 1 142891111 142894111 1 142894011 142897011 1 142896911 142399911 1 142899811 142902811 1 142902711 142905711 1 142905611 142908611 1 142908511 142911511 1 142911411 142914411 1 142914311 142917311 1 142917211 142920211 1 142920111 142923111 1 142923011 142926011 1 142925911 142928911 1 142928811 142935940 1 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135333911 10 135333893 135335531 10 135336202 135336970 10 135336919 135337220 10 135337202 135338840 10 135339512 135340519 10 135340501 135342139 10 135342811 135343579 10 135343528 135343829 10 135343811 135345449 10 135346121 135347128 10 135347110 135348748 11 94766 96028 11 96700 97911 11 102135 103310 11 107025 108338 11 113097 116371 11 116547 121485 11 123351 123617 11 123769 124497 11 127548 128365 11 161385 163980 11 3363528 3370350 11 3371366 3371917 11 3371972 3372451 11 3373325 3373930 11 3386485 3388695 11 3527376 3523447 11 3555395 3556821 11 3557309 3559557 11 3565017 3566451 11 3569099 3570303 11 3570473 3571026 11 3571073 3571564 11 3572432 3573053 11 3577101 3579166 11 9638455 9639325 11 14965429 14967500 11 17024582 17026131 11 17029792 17031274 11 45717216 45717613 11 55502981 55504888 11 67241485 67242178 11 67245568 67246131 11 67246139 67248220 11 67259531 67261381 11 67262995 67263483 11 67264333 67264957 11 67473097 67480351 11 67485796 67487234 11 67491307 67491856 11 67491910 67492395 11 67493259 67493883 11 67497933 67499992 11 70981434 70983490 11 70987556 70988168 11 71008013 71010102 11 71281423 71283500 11 71287558 71288163 11 71291138 71292983 11 86245463 86246710 12 3075337 3076211 12 8262609 8264141 12 8265006 8270763 12 8402792 8403825 12 8430768 8432228 12 8432720 8434969 12 8437752 8439209 12 8439701 8441121 12 8446613 8448057 12 8452686 8453179 12 8457716 8458268 12 8458294 8460357 12 8471405 8473271 12 8474271 8474827 12 8474875 8475342 12 8476237 8476862 12 8480914 8482976 12 19133303 15134377 12 47013728 47014301 12 50786648 50788484 12 52963789 52965347 12 67232879 67234098 12 75578207 75578878 12 91802348 91803051 12 97508348 97509261 13 17995587 17996953 13 17997097 17998252 13 18288449 18292048 13 20420083 20420737 13 20433426 20434515 13 40903352 40905132 13 40911639 40913687 13 40914646 40915969 13 52115336 52116324 13 67374251 67375729 13 67382416 67384251 13 111979652 111982652 13 111982552 111985552 13 111985452 111988452 13 111988352 111991352 13 111991252 111994252 13 111994152 111997152 13 111997052 112000052 13 111999952 112002952 13 112002852 112005852 13 112005752 112008752 13 112008652 112011652 13 112011552 112018203 14 18664988 18667988 14 19043684 19046684 14 19046584 19051597 14 24805233 24806574 14 51292735 51294831 14 51299474 51301291 14 51302975 51303892 14 51307909 51308659 14 64803015 64803589 14 67957877 67958846 14 76169822 76171999 14 80358545 80359813 14 89902712 89903445 14 94262263 94263362 14 104649992 104650545 14 106201997 106202735 15 18360606 18361476 15 18361674 18363115 15 18363152 18365752 15 18366678 18367711 15 18387120 18388727 15 18391903 18393930 15 18394931 18396325 15 18396433 18397598 15 18406280 18407694 15 18407709 18409068 15 18594889 18597892 15 18610188 18610875 15 18772684 18773241 15 18786199 18789236 15 19027085 19029822 15 19032880 19035130 15 19035530 19036399 15 19036545 19042069 15 19293434 19298720 15 19606139 19609142 15 19621449 19622136 15 20253050 20258404 15 20259725 20261940 15 20806010 20808813 15 20809116 20810372 15 20810359 20811764 15 20811762 20814157 15 20815310 20821272 15 20985924 20988647 15 20994355 20995224 15 20995384 21000894 15 21150707 21153444 15 21154729 21156450 15 21156504 21158767 15 21159169 21160036 15 21160104 21165996 15 26296776 26299513 15 26302569 26304845 15 26305249 26306113 15 26306410 26311793 15 26563133 26568496 15 26569812 26572036 15 26572049 26573842 15 26575173 26577879 15 26742212 26747856 15 26751659 26753011 15 26754534 26757345 15 27810165 27811373 15 28161778 28164582 15 28166127 28167587 15 28167908 28370155 15 28171386 28178532 15 28213889 28216677 15 28216955 28218226 15 28218225 28219687 15 28220002 28222250 15 28223378 28230678 15 28491706 28494492 15 28630817 28633603 15 28635133 28636871 15 28636930 28639166 15 28640356 28646237 15 28682853 28685644 15 28685929 28687200 15 28687204 28688652 15 28688966 28691221 15 28692369 28697696 15 28870321 28873114 15 28874674 28876365 15 28876401 28878656 15 30466661 30473994 15 30480732 30483524 15 30519850 30526327 15 30533078 30535864 15 30672293 30675077 15 30675351 30676620 15 30676608 30678349 15 30678409 30680640 15 30681783 30687098 15 32458442 32461007 15 32602361 32607228 15 50965117 50966140 15 56949047 56949779 15 58446368 58446769 15 70732787 70733252 15 70733411 70736172 15 70738607 70740294 15 70740328 70741424 15 70745853 70750563 15 72440962 72441729 15 73336547 73337095 15 73337271 73340032 15 73342445 73344156 15 73344185 73345281 15 73349710 73353903 15 73360924 73361372 15 73361548 73364309 15 73366726 73368431 15 73368460 73369556 15 73373991 73377489 15 73853667 73854106 15 73861151 73862635 15 73863746 73864668 15 73866379 73869717 15 75989271 75994297 15 76811041 76812702 15 76812731 76814370 15 76942564 76943503 15 80416496 80422055 15 80426623 80429474 15 80503604 80511452 15 80512805 80514569 15 80515918 80523086 15 80590377 80593237 15 80597229 80603047 15 80723823 80729382 15 80734114 80736965 15 80801118 80808339 15 80813115 80815966 15 80895129 80897977 15 80899330 80901094 15 80902443 80909611 15 80984953 80987813 15 80991572 80997390 15 82694852 82697709 15 82702577 82708045 15 82769487 82775578 15 82846753 82853999 15 82858976 82861823 15 83583992 83586822 15 83591688 83597130 15 88635539 88637081 15 88639975 88643394 15 98150607 98155408 15 100110105 100113105 15 100113005 100116005 15 100115905 100118905 15 100118805 200123202 15 100124627 100129446 16 9157684 9158413 16 11927430 11927910 16 11928081 11928363 16 11928888 11929814 16 11929873 11931057 16 11931218 11933835 16 11934605 11935408 16 11936277 11936784 16 11936881 11937488 16 11937653 11938237 16 11938523 11939366 16 11940339 11940738 16 11940903 11941310 16 11943704 11944356 16 14717137 14717981 16 14756261 14757105 16 15104480 15104962 16 15105137 15105447 16 15105550 15106686 16 15106718 15107931 16 15108101 15110718 16 15111494 15112306 16 15113191 15113691 16 15113786 15114394 16 15114559 15115142 16 15115440 15116271 16 15117260 15117658 16 15117823 15118230 16 15119042 15119625 16 15119931 15120754 16 15121743 15122141 16 15122309 15122714 16 15361833 15362085 16 15363798 15364275 16 15364450 15364790 16 15364772 15366004 16 15366063 15367245 16 15367418 15370040 16 15372474 15372975 16 15373070 15373669 16 15374702 15375543 16 15376525 15376919 16 15377081 15377488 16 15379951 15380603 16 18318759 18319069 16 18319271 18320370 16 18320429 18321612 16 18321785 18324404 16 18325174 18325983 16 18327465 18328070 16 18328230 18328813 16 18329108 18329942 16 18330927 18331322 16 18331486 18331891 16 18358260 18358738 16 18358912 18359222 16 18359324 18360513 16 18360560 18361765 16 18361938 18364556 16 18365315 18366119 16 18367609 18368214 16 18368374 18368957 16 18369252 18370086 16 18371633 18372038 16 21319787 21320264 16 21320424 21320748 16 21321158 21324692 16 21324751 21325935 16 21326103 21328724 16 21331156 21331660 16 21331759 21332367 16 21332534 21333118 16 21333404 21334247 16 21335230 21335632 16 21337973 21338701 16 21752211 21752692 16 21753592 21757143 16 21757202 21758386 16 21758554 21761176 16 21763612 21764116 16 21764215 21764823 16 21764990 21765574 16 21765860 21766703 16 21767686 21768089 16 21770253 21770980 16 21771097 21771751 16 22447899 22450521 16 25950479 25952012 16 28260133 28260613 16 28261670 28262587 16 28262646 28263829 16 28264003 28266633 16 28267385 28268190 16 28269080 28269586 16 28269684 28270293 16 28270458 28271038 16 28271326 28272221 16 28273208 28273609 16 28273776 28274182 16 28276548 28277202 16 28373948 28374428 16 28375445 28376425 16 28376484 28377667 16 28377841 28380471 16 28381225 28382030 16 28382919 28383425 16 28383523 28384133 16 28384298 28384879 16 28385167 28386064 16 28387049 28387449 16 28387616 28388022 16 28389582 28390299 16 28390416 28390810 16 28566668 28567571 16 28572287 28574920 16 28680784 28681687 16 28686410 28689045 16 28960735 28961638 16 28966322 28968953 16 29298937 29299418 16 29300326 29303688 16 29303747 29304931 16 29305099 29307720 16 29308487 29309297 16 29310148 29310655 16 29311525 29312109 16 29312395 29313238 16 29314217 29314620 16 29314778 29315185 16 29316710 29317428 16 29317544 29318200 16 29401182 29401661 16 29402563 29405232 16 29405291 29406475 16 29406637 29409258 16 29411679 29412183 16 29412281 29412889 16 29413056 29413640 16 29413931 29414769 16 29415752 29416156 16 29416317 29426724 16 29418481 29419209 16 29419325 29419979 16 30140520 30141001 16 30141903 30145202 16 30145261 30146445 16 30146607 30149228 16 30151651 30152155 16 30152253 30152861 16 30153028 30153612 16 30153898 30154741 16 30155724 30156127 16 30156289 30156696 16 30158449 30159277 16 30159293 30159947 16 31023484 31023739 16 32010943 32012843 16 32015872 32016671 16 32019405 32020767 16 32022176 32023330 16 32030797 32031743 16 32031925 32033384 16 32033427 32034423 16 32035830 32036681 16 32037547 32038635 16 32059106 32060888 16 32061435 32062279 16 32063895 32064826 16 32065078 32065930 16 32066933 32068296 16 32199735 32200812 16 32243529 32245723 16 32397542 32398604 16 32398645 32400103 16 32696884 32698214 16 32699244 32700089 16 32700390 32701275 16 32702241 32702577 16 32704440 32706043 16 32707129 32708619 16 32713323 32719170 16 32731079 32732099 16 32732144 32733605 16 32733787 32734709 16 32742206 32743394 16 32744823 32745894 16 32746919 32748002 16 32749336 32749686 16 32749927 32750263 16 32752127 32753731 16 32954234 32956134 16 32959163 32959957 16 32960787 32961679 16 32962687 32964049 16 32965462 32966616 16 32974096 32975042 16 32975224 32976701 16 32976725 32977724 16 32980723 32981810 16 33002026 33003620 16 33004355 33005194 16 33007993 33008844 16 33009847 33011210 16 33139892 33140417 16 33140362 33141435 16 33196431 33196956 16 33196901 33197974 16 33240960 33243995 16 33419932 33420467 16 33429747 33433221 16 33481544 33482145 16 33482560 33483086 16 33483087 33484304 16 33737090 33738771 16 33739465 33740266 16 33742815 33743902 16 33744917 33746282 16 33746425 33747583 16 33756462 33757412 16 33757593 33758608 16 33761640 33762258 16 33762673 33763202 16 33763236 33764229 16 34031579 34032741 16 45016837 45017231 16 45027885 45028131 16 45029934 45031119 16 45031584 45032917 16 45033939 45035971 16 45036349 45036701 16 45036936 45037273 16 45037585 45038434 16 45039100 45040729 16 45047881 45049346 16 45053593 45055259 16 50237948 50238798 16 54311067 54311970 16 68564522 68564756 16 68567941 68568703 16 68568756 68569939 16 68570099 68572729 16 68575163 68575667 16 68575778 68576375 16 68577411 68578253 16 68579786 68580183 16 68582506 68583159 16 72531975 72533100 16 72922626 72973529 16 72978234 72980862 16 88717679 88720272 16 88760034 88766574 16 88766732 38769973 16 88774746 88776076 16 88777106 88779330 17 2297655 2297908 17 3515159 3515829 17 19289778 19290880 17 20387180 20390762 17 21348384 21349066 17 21741385 22744793 17 22292111 22293651 17 22296813 22298854 17 22299852 22301216 17 22301354 22302516 17 22311146 22312583 17 22322597 22313657 17 22315605 22316144 17 22316139 22317163 17 22826125 22816652 17 22816652 22828218 17 31605181 31610460 17 31611004 31615742 17 32820215 31825462 17 38158221 38159554 17 49189246 49190629 17 55440252 55445572 17 55448102 55450829 17 55865785 55868518 17 58902710 58903522 18 3396264 3396958 18 11610485 11611729 18 11611884 11614533 18 11615276 11616108 18 11617000 11617526 18 11617619 11618233 18 11618374 11618981 18 11619253 11620111 18 11621089 11621498 18 11621634 11622063 18 11624334 11625003 18 15153437 15153846 18 15153801 15154050 18 15161485 15163124 18 15167401 15170516 18 15186645 15189327 18 15189356 15190830 18 15190986 15191931 18 15196957 15197361 18 15197316 15197565 18 15199371 15200557 18 15200707 15202034 18 15206063 15207047 18 15212319 15212679 18 15215139 15216718 18 16952949 16953846 18 28245382 28246465 18 28246466 28247235 18 60427393 60427657 19 125432 126651 19 127518 128534 19 132793 133921 19 137998 139264 19 144614 145730 19 147529 152774 19 154647 154904 19 156488 156880 19 158851 159645 19 192892 195232 19 11637549 11638173 19 11638204 11639152 19 20122434 20122687 19 23801829 23802914 19 35084165 35084916 19 41452383 41453289 19 41454884 41455790 19 41457425 41458831 19 41459980 41460886 19 41462514 41463420 19 41465051 41465957 19 41467584 41468490 19 41470120 41471026 19 41472657 41473563 19 41475191 41476089 19 41477706 41478612 19 41480241 41481147 19 41482776 41483682 19 41485308 41486214 19 41487823 41488729 19 41490351 41491257 19 42452859 42453772 19 42455400 42456312 19 42457927 42458840 19 42460468 42461378 19 42462990 42463906 19 42465517 42466429 19 42468041 42463951 19 42470569 42471479 19 42473090 42474003 19 42475616 42476530 19 42478141 42479054 19 42480669 42481579 19 42483194 42484107 19 42485733 42486649 19 47026587 47027278 20 16156968 16157866 20 23917031 23919754 20 25296625 25297579 20 25965888 25966788 20 32282717 32282947 20 35591843 35592652 20 43702433 43703545 20 62390112 62391634 20 62391791 62395029 20 62399795 62401142 20 62403354 62401606 20 62410238 62411301 21 9906947 9907955 21 9908031 9909476 21 13434602 13436061 21 13436632 13437732 21 13445924 13447287 21 14204315 14206362 21 18015218 18015457 22 14621332 14624332 22 14624232 14629238 22 15243762 15244713 22 15244833 15246342 22 15246355 35248312 22 15399524 15401694 22 15401660 15402569 22 17213680 17216394 22 19373553 19376268 22 19810021 19812752 22 19966423 33969119 22 20956694 20959722 22 20979252 20979945 22 22977225 22979921 22 39228579 39239391 22 40434265 40435626 X 16132 19132 X 19032 22032 X 21932 24932 X 24832 27832 X 27732 30732 X 30632 34923 X 94862 97862 X 97762 100762 X 100662 106482 X 24638007 24638267 X 40679080 40680187 X 44485159 44486320 X 49044215 49044949 X 49048184 49050232 X 49061059 49061829 X 49062477 49063326 X 49065081 49066314 X 49066355 49068564 X 49068601 49068965 X 49069601 49070391 X 49070495 49071338 X 49072020 49072869 X 49074625 49075857 X 49075895 49078107 X 49078144 49078508 X 49079144 49079934 X 49081523 49082372 X 49084128 49085360 X 49085398 49087623 X 49087660 49088024 X 49088670 49089460 X 49091077 49091926 X 49093681 49094913 X 49094951 49097160 X 49097197 49097562 X 49098189 49098979 X 49099083 49099926 X 49100574 49101423 X 49104450 49106663 X 49106700 49107064 X 49107712 49108503 X 49108606 49109449 X 49110097 49110946 X 49112703 49113935 X 49113973 49116199 X 49116236 49116601 X 49117250 49118040 X 49118144 49118987 X 49119635 49120484 X 49122240 49123472 X 49123510 49125734 X 49125771 49126136 X 49126735 49127576 X 49127679 49128522 X 49129170 49130042 X 49183345 49184576 X 49184614 49186827 X 49186864 49187229 X 49187878 49188667 X 49188820 49189615 X 49192901 49194132 X 49194170 49196383 X 49196420 49196785 X 49197434 49198223 X 49202457 49203688 X 49203726 49205939 X 49205976 49206341 X 49206990 49207779 X 49212010 49213241 X 49213279 49215498 X 49215535 49215900 X 49216549 49217338 X 49218966 49239814 X 49221568 49222799 5 49222837 49225051 8 49225088 49225453 X 49226102 49226891 5 49223515 49229363 8 49231117 49232348 6 49232386 49234599 6 49234636 49235001 6 49235650 49236439 X 49236544 49237387 X 49238062 49238910 6 49240664 49241895 X 49241933 49244121 X 49244158 49244523 X 49245172 49245961 X 49247584 49248433 X 49250188 49251419 X 49251457 49253677 X 49253710 49254071 X 49254722 49255512 X 49255768 49256089 X 73609149 73610674 X 74520797 74522030 X 86844886 86845933 X 99297418 99298603 X 100028503 100029568 X 114489068 114489842 X 114865863 114368863 X 114368763 114871763 X 114871663 114874663 X 114874563 114377563 X 114377463 114880463 X 114880363 114883363 X 114883263 114886263 X 114886163 114889163 X 114889063 114892063 X 114891963 114894963 X 114894863 114897863 X 114897763 114900763 X 114900663 114903663 X 114903563 114906563 X 114906463 114909463 X 114909363 114912363 X 114912263 114919806 X 118238685 118240238 X 119890688 119891684 X 119895580 119896591 X 119900441 119901452 X 119905301 119906312 X 119910162 119911173 X 119915022 119916033 X 119919909 119920916 X 119924770 119925777 X 119929630 119930637 X 119934490 119935497 X 119939350 119940357 X 119944210 119945217 Y 16191 19191 Y 19091 22091 Y 21991 24991 Y 24891 27891 Y 27791 30791 Y 30691 34923 Y 94909 97909 Y 97809 100809 Y 100709 106482 Y 11948052 11949578 Y 12096945 12098386 Y 12098452 12099888 Y 12100103 12100991 Y 24724690 24725770 Y 24730086 24731171 Y 25921971 25922829 Y 26009578 26010460 Y 26050044 26051990 Y 26055536 26056525 Y 57229776 57230006 Y 57230958 57231210 Y 57232046 57232288 Y 57233364 57233594 Y 57234531 57234783 Y 57235604 57235846 Y 57236910 57237144 Y 57238080 57238332 Y 57239168 57239410 Y 57240484 57240718 Y 57241669 57241921 Y 57242757 57242999 Y 57244033 57244286 Y 57245218 57245470 Y 57246291 57246533 Y 57247597 57247831 Y 57248677 57248929 Y 57249765 57250007 Y 57251071 57251305 Y 57252256 57252508 Y 57253345 57253587 Y 57254561 57254895 Y 57255846 57256098 Y 57256919 57257161 Y 57259425 57259677 Y 57260513 57260755 Y 57261819 57262053 Y 57263004 57263256 Y 57264057 57264299 Y 57265361 57265598 Y 57266546 57266800 Y 57267636 57267878 Y 57270122 57270374 Y 57271210 57271463 Y 57273704 57273956 Y 57274792 57275034 Y 57276113 57276347 Y 57277298 57277550 Y 57278389 57278628 Y 57280872 57281124 Y 57281960 57282202 Y 57283246 57283480 Y 57284431 57284683 Y 57285504 57285863 Y 57286820 57287054 Y 57288014 57288257 Y 57289093 57289335 Y 57290404 57290638 Y 57291559 57291811 Y 57292647 57292889 Y 57293920 57294171 Y 57295088 57295340 Y 57296176 57296418 Y 57297487 57297740 Y 57298681 57298924 Y 57299761 57300000 Y 57301066 57301300 Y 57302251 57302503 Y 57303335 57303574 Y 57304645 57304879 Y 57305830 57306082 Y 57306918 57307160 Y 57308204 57308438 Y 57310477 57310719 Y 57311783 57312017 Y 57314040 57314282 Y 57315341 57315575 Y 57316526 57316778 Y 57317614 57317856 Y 57320110 57320362 Y 57321197 57321439 Y 57323192 57323434 Y 57324481 57324711 Y 57325658 57325915 Y 57326751 57326993

TABLE 2 Genomic regions covered by 150bp oligonucleotide spacing. Chromosome coordinates correspond to the NA18507 human genome. chr1: 869310-870347 chr1: 963659-964480 chr1: 1011188-1014823 chr1: 1034408-1035203 chr1: 1074379-1076117 chr1: 1137003-1138283 chr1: 1223559-1225694 chr1: 1285400-1236900 chr1: 1362430-1363536 chr1: 1414909-1416195 chr1: 1540930-1541970 chr1: 1910377-1911917 chr1: 1910377-1913930 chr1: 1912935-1913930 chr1: 2024543-2027403 chr1: 2052961-2055975 chr1: 2054957-2055810 chr1: 2212060-2214175 chr1: 2390213-2391118 chr1: 2390558-2391302 chr1: 2892794-2894919 chr1: 3031707-3082806 chr1: 3083952-3084887 chr1: 3097463-3098803 chr1: 3215660-3217110 chr1: 3499732-3500631 chr1: 3560245-3560955 chr1: 3308437-3809202 chr1: 4044756-4045264 chr1: 4123843-4127968 chr1: 4136993-4138968 chr1: 4137818-4138918 chr1: 4284635-4236005 chr1: 4391581-4393728 chr1: 4392421-4393623 chr1: 4402810-4404190 chr1: 4403355-4404275 chr1: 5196671-5197414 chr1: 5876593-5877522 chr1: 5876593-5878094 chr1: 5876958-5877603 chr1: 6064750-6065630 chr1: 6064950-6066340 chr1: 6066020-6066933 chr1: 6166718-6169303 chr1: 6366319-6368893 chr1: 6453353-6459551 chr1: 6762626-6763496 chr1: 6861345-6861918 chr1: 7022668-7023529 chr1: 7569215-7571521 chr1: 7577658-7579878 chr1: 7763029-7765558 chr1: 7924952-7925557 chr1: 8550458-8551198 chr1: 8550526-8551722 chr1: 8671740-8674276 chr1: 8673967-8676588 chr1: 9317806-9321226 chr1: 9596173-9596900 chr1: 9596184-9597928 chr1: 10482550-10483507 chr1: 10951426-10952195 chr1: 11060167-11061907 chr1: 11099116-11102746 chr1: 11582552-11583022 chr1: 11989868-11993484 chr1: 12030771-12031509 chr1: 13774084-13777459 chr1: 14163040-14165210 chr1: 14163040-14167016 chr1: 14295319-14295827 chr1: 14436311-14438948 chr1: 15274921-15279573 chr1: 15326675-15327295 chr1: 15364967-15365622 chr1: 15456143-15461008 chr1: 15576232-15578112 chr1: 15581325-15582378 chr1: 15913142-15913612 chr1: 16009544-16011390 chr1: 16152274-16155502 chr1: 16210276-16213462 chr1: 16360194-16360934 chr1: 17197325-17201896 chr1: 17675886-17677389 chr1: 17676268-17677389 chr1: 17676268-17678930 chr1: 19326226-19328463 chr1: 19355651-19359876 chr1: 19386662-19387372 chr1: 20090476-20091962 chr1: 20407098-20410672 chr1: 20497229-20497789 chr1: 20499004-20500798 chr1: 20614631-20616067 chr1: 20932517-20933644 chr1: 21658828-21659448 chr1: 22886525-22888263 chr1: 22889175-22891149 chr1: 22890279-22891179 chr1: 24520344-24523704 chr1: 24804297-24807306 chr1: 24805052-24807640 chr1: 25201833-25203426 chr1: 25695583-25696195 chr1: 27921423-27922378 chr1: 28653097-28654894 chr1: 29008566-29009882 chr1: 29304427-29306310 chr1: 30531928-30532743 chr1: 30688669-30689223 chr1: 30738408-30740073 chr1: 30773957-30774557 chr1: 31124288-31124783 chr1: 31169654-31171814 chr1: 31696905-31697770 chr1: 31904565-31905074 chr1: 32544596-32547969 chr1: 34028738-34029620 chr1: 34041090-34042831 chr1: 34294222-34294847 chr1: 35182213-35184257 chr1: 35301157-35301658 chr1: 37424181-37426011 chr1: 38602560-38604580 chr1: 38642190-38645098 chr1: 39084384-39085575 chr1: 39295081-39295591 chr1: 39534290-39536657 chr1: 39998696-40001204 chr1: 40967032-40969860 chr1: 41026622-41028481 chr1: 41571863-41573145 chr1: 41761976-41765713 chr1: 42366033-42366623 chr1: 42648938-42652837 chr1: 42686842-42689160 chr1: 42855183-42857734 chr1: 43693743-43695534 chr1: 44337310-44338030 chr1: 46805652-46810297 chr1: 47976947-47977608 chr1: 48469083-48471022 chr1: 48722141-48723709 chr1: 49176585-49177170 chr1: 49619312-49620039 chr1: 51915277-51917387 chr1: 52455037-52456002 chr1: 52607549-52608219 chr1: 53355695-53357553 chr1: 53519239-53519896 chr1: 53594192-53595574 chr1: 53793265-53794017 chr1: 53967754-53968754 chr1: 54351428-54353453 chr1: 54367638-54369718 chr1: 54412288-54413001 chr1: 54612213-54615165 chr1: 55092329-55093794 chr1: 55092329-55095974 chr1: 55301183-55304991 chr1: 55851167-55855543 chr1: 56002387-56002939 chr1: 57756856-57757610 chr1: 57887344-57887923 chr1: 57887539-57890289 chr1: 58647431-58649106 chr1: 58743911-58744811 chr1: 59247251-59250394 chr1: 60046731-60049658 chr1: 60048626-60049658 chr1: 60106241-60107103 chr1: 61547702-61549738 chr1: 62082811-62083739 chr1: 62417791-62418301 chr1: 62654849-62657214 chr1: 63614653-63615933 chr1: 63734433-63735624 chr1: 64662514-64664895 chr1: 66040926-66043753 chr1: 66525243-66527767 chr1: 66959151-66959374 chr1: 70820591-70825114 chr1: 71237358-71240311 chr1: 72360086-72361128 chr1: 73123333-73123943 chr1: 75198172-75198656 chr1: 76610720-76613917 chr1: 78649179-78651619 chr1: 78834094-78835855 chr1: 79393643-79395839 chr1: 79393643-79397736 chr1: 80219938-80221138 chr1: 80220972-80223381 chr1: 80221683-80222961 chr1: 80792423-80793718 chr1: 80792478-80796895 chr1: 82804016-82805770 chr1: 84126185-84127086 chr1: 84388361-84388940 chr1: 84711621-84715809 chr1: 84895834-84899546 chr1: 85666191-85667696 chr1: 86296641-86297551 chr1: 86400747-86404675 chr1: 87523633-87524446 chr1: 87613239-87614258 chr1: 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108733355-108737405 chr1: 109024587-109026238 chr1: 109348923-109350130 chr1: 109367036-109371953 chr1: 109496697-109501138 chr1: 113220144-113225122 chr1: 113529356-113532563 chr1: 113664477-113665870 chr1: 113957544-113958112 chr1: 115722088-115722923 chr1: 116016609-116017419 chr1: 116229524-116233096 chr1: 116229569-116231373 chr1: 117880720-117881339 chr1: 117880720-117881895 chr1: 118989802-118990365 chr1: 119482482-119483626 chr1: 120012853-120013616 chr1: 120085129-120087107 chr1: 142535521-142540079 chr1: 150601192-150602306 chr1: 150860233-150862841 chr1: 151291318-151293798 chr1: 152277700-152279580 chr1: 152452226-152453261 chr1: 152883675-152884568 chr1: 153134866-153136100 chr1: 153215570-153217705 chr1: 153215870-153216495 chr1: 154158242-154161302 chr1: 155160571-155161682 chr1: 155160976-155161632 chr1: 155659754-155664482 chr1: 157173655-157176433 chr1: 158715296-158717653 chr1: 158726860-158728090 chr1: 158867528-158870050 chr1: 158961733-158966297 chr1: 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185010498-185011740 chr1: 185783571-185785361 chr1: 187464835-187466483 chr1: 187752484-187754782 chr1: 187753749-187754782 chr1: 188539470-188540236 chr1: 189243809-189247596 chr1: 189589192-189589675 chr1: 190376759-190381486 chr1: 191657137-191661067 chr1: 191726014-191727002 chr1: 191916410-191913561 chr1: 191916977-191918567 chr1: 191917397-191918567 chr1: 192860431-192861926 chr1: 194350411-194351644 chr1: 194450274-194454737 chr1: 194451285-194453179 chr1: 195144343-195145919 chr1: 195410092-195414631 chr1: 196602742-196604036 chr1: 196779403-196781773 chr1: 198773802-198775371 chr1: 198886120-198886917 chr1: 199110166-199113911 chr1: 199562787-199566651 chr1: 199563942-199566651 chr1: 200255514-200259609 chr1: 200263065-200263897 chr1: 201177874-201181216 chr1: 201178666-201180182 chr1: 201218825-201222411 chr1: 201220236-201221871 chr1: 201224281-201227876 chr1: 203021521-203022002 chr1: 203064106-203065267 chr1: 203165467-203166667 chr1: 203684431-203686356 chr1: 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230132847-230134182 chr1: 230529987-230533208 chr1: 230561339-230562425 chr1: 231319913-231322038 chr1: 232458623-232460241 chr1: 232721851-232723030 chr1: 233467942-233468458 chr1: 233766265-233767045 chr1: 234319179-234319651 chr1: 234614066-234614836 chr1: 234744318-234747260 chr1: 236363301-236365959 chr1: 236584351-236585822 chr1: 236584351-236586513 chr1: 236701848-236702993 chr1: 236701848-236703765 chr1: 236702482-236702993 chr1: 236876955-236878374 chr1: 236918916-236920526 chr1: 237754052-237754900 chr1: 238316743-238318124 chr1: 238609053-238610012 chr1: 238750853-238752038 chr1: 238854994-238856099 chr1: 240393262-240394858 chr1: 241594804-241596516 chr1: 242384554-242386417 chr1: 242955010-242959682 chr1: 242958146-242959682 chr1: 243636778-243637761 chr1: 243782750-243783865 chr1: 244287342-244287946 chr1: 244516944-244519535 chr1: 244747063-244748521 chr1: 245266258-245267003 chr1: 245574609-245575272 chr1: 245605941-245607827 chr1: 246137817-246140393 chr1: 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495037-495861 chr2: 732114-733131 chr2: 739939-740899 chr2: 842222-846862 chr2: 842292-843972 chr2: 856481-857057 chr2: 856585-857607 chr2: 863997-865007 chr2: 905276-905921 chr2: 907782-909792 chr2: 921613-924963 chr2: 923663-924933 chr2: 923733-925448 chr2: 1008223-1010537 chr2: 1089649-1090699 chr2: 1101445-1104924 chr2: 1107236-1111412 chr2: 1118176-1119526 chr2: 1138817-1140050 chr2: 1320312-1322339 chr2: 1346033-1350143 chr2: 1365044-1367369 chr2: 1460297-1461427 chr2: 1493781-1494321 chr2: 1535342-1536127 chr2: 1535342-1538368 chr2: 1536127-1537248 chr2: 1537248-1539680 chr2: 1569069-1570170 chr2: 1584524-1585799 chr2: 1614365-1615818 chr2: 1622912-1623621 chr2: 1706736-1708542 chr2: 1710228-1711205 chr2: 1753523-1755007 chr2: 1753959-1754852 chr2: 2007773-2009985 chr2: 2037907-2040471 chr2: 2178369-2179465 chr2: 2583803-2585233 chr2: 2726140-2726835 chr2: 2739125-2740760 chr2: 2793610-2799100 chr2: 2910434-2910984 chr2: 3184227-3185292 chr2: 3440415-3442250 chr2: 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22688510-22689942 chr2: 23446426-23446941 chr2: 24713681-24715058 chr2: 25142443-25143808 chr2: 25294651-25298745 chr2: 25562831-25565700 chr2: 25895918-25897020 chr2: 26395611-26396330 chr2: 26915033-26916237 chr2: 29085123-29087323 chr2: 29337958-29338845 chr2: 29641670-29645241 chr2: 30151653-30153037 chr2: 30370102-30370907 chr2: 31270402-31274383 chr2: 31537258-31538046 chr2: 32478643-32480258 chr2: 33224505-33227313 chr2: 33764473-33767693 chr2: 33765314-33766701 chr2: 33989554-33994164 chr2: 34523689-34524806 chr2: 34523689-34525820 chr2: 34827266-34828987 chr2: 34921795-34924020 chr2: 34965712-34966630 chr2: 36003935-36009641 chr2: 36336354-36339485 chr2: 38370966-38373613 chr2: 40612304-40614782 chr2: 40861417-40362771 chr2: 41147231-41150771 chr2: 41964384-41965267 chr2: 42005997-42009534 chr2: 42274488-42275846 chr2: 42346150-42346663 chr2: 42346150-42347102 chr2: 43147929-43149704 chr2: 43249260-43250095 chr2: 43451425-43454915 chr2: 45413392-45416861 chr2: 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39128851-39129996 chr21: 39651128-39655123 chr21: 39973933-39975874 chr21: 40050052-40051416 chr21: 40814284-40816976 chr21: 41344469-41345024 chr21: 41346366-41347056 chr21: 41521089-41521810 chr21: 41554486-41555154 chr21: 41670393-41674209 chr21: 42845934-42847731 chr21: 43037448-43039221 chr21: 43037459-43040086 chr21: 43284492-43285567 chr21: 43350120-43353426 chr21: 43498241-43498896 chr21: 43557506-43558111 chr21: 43933622-43934715 chr21: 44007534-44010634 chr21: 44705465-44706185 chr21: 44718621-44719136 chr21: 44808566-44809052 chr21: 44970196-44973492 chr21: 45001567-45004171 chr21: 45159263-45160863 chr21: 45508571-45509106 chr21: 45618957-45621033 chr21: 45681654-45683665 chr21: 45681975-45683050 chr21: 45719922-45720647 chr21: 45789163-45739993 chr21: 45815454-45816905 chr21: 45828928-45831001 chr21: 45904010-45905210 chr21: 45904451-45905356 chr21: 45942684-45945229 chr21: 46401513-46402593 chr21: 46447971-46448726 chr21: 46654099-46654729 chr21: 46765045-46766149 chr21: 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34900119-34901341 chr22: 35295028-35299027 chr22: 35469747-35471058 chr22: 35645445-35646472 chr22: 36069890-36071426 chr22: 36918738-36923490 chr22: 37143357-37147011 chr22: 37493688-37494368 chr22: 37618621-37621144 chr22: 37983065-37984326 chr22: 38054434-38055177 chr22: 39293896-39298665 chr22: 42716350-42716860 chr22: 42717400-42720441 chr22: 42879201-42830111 chr22: 43431422-43436218 chr22: 43594738-43595763 chr22: 43676579-43677609 chr22: 46491132-46492057 chr22: 46535015-46537497 chr22: 46872703-46873298 chr22: 47027350-47027940 chr22: 47254779-47256635 chr22: 47459249-47459949 chr22: 47606751-47609606 chr22: 47801028-47801658 chr22: 47996185-47996815 chr22: 48128044-48128679 chr22: 48481462-48483565 chr22: 48482572-48483330 chr22: 48594721-48595537 chr22: 48647627-48649147 chr22: 48893354-48894129 chr22: 49014818-49017434 chr22: 49034097-49034913 chr22: 49050926-49051616 chr22: 49062450-49064460 chr22: 49063500-49064520 chr22: 49131616-49132301 chr22: 50329163-50329646 chr22: 50467091-50467871 chr22: 50495516-50496091 chr22: 50674880-50677245 chr22: 50782140-50784908 chr22: 50871166-50873706 chr22: 50976153-50976699 chr22: 51082134-51082724 chr22: 51117967-51121392 chr22: 51123499-51125484 chr22: 51186721-51187416 chrX: 2006342-2007441 chrX: 2292139-2294700 chrX: 2331747-2336269 chrX: 2390959-2392269 chrX: 2419193-2420758 chrX: 2515135-2516329 chrX: 2545862-2550743 chrX: 2565454-2566289 chrX: 3060615-3061823 chrX: 3761130-3762262 chrX: 3799164-3800780 chrX: 3837863-3839310 chrX: 4157512-4161894 chrX: 4157626-4159273 chrX: 5055404-5057320 chrX: 5159509-5164153 chrX: 5362305-5363025 chrX: 7622203-7623589 chrX: 8786541-8788892 chrX: 9432542-9434165 chrX: 9753741-9754954 chrX: 9982509-9985831 chrX: 9982564-9984219 chrX: 10530516-10531080 chrX: 14645065-14645876 chrX: 14797854-14799253 chrX: 16887834-16889249 chrX: 17637522-17638135 chrX: 18277660-18281295 chrX: 18278683-18281421 chrX: 19229162-19229770 chrX: 19374309-19374922 chrX: 19465688-19469525 chrX: 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70799156-70800146 chrX: 78921648-78925951 chrX: 78921816-78925294 chrX: 79298842-79303187 chrX: 80416515-80417443 chrX: 81173874-81175839 chrX: 81983127-81987718 chrX: 84148632-84150257 chrX: 85674775-85677046 chrX: 86089624-86090437 chrX: 88557172-88559847 chrX: 90226325-90227684 chrX: 93186836-93188015 chrX: 93401004-93404141 chrX: 94591646-94596454 chrX: 94698170-94701864 chrX: 95050849-95051472 chrX: 96606848-96608696 chrX: 102856941-102858799 chrX: 104417623-104418075 chrX: 105807016-105807818 chrX: 108353196-108356853 chrX: 109938628-109942201 chrX: 112149828-112152431 chrX: 114542555-114544543 chrX: 114543110-114544104 chrX: 116469495-116471079 chrX: 117454203-117454803 chrX: 120976226-120977717 chrX: 121946734-121949306 chrX: 122315627-122316237 chrX: 122372631-122373391 chrX: 123595967-123596512 chrX: 124991870-124994577 chrX: 126597916-126602440 chrX: 126598717-126602349 chrX: 127815565-127816864 chrX: 128500452-128502522 chrX: 129243875-129245369 chrX: 129667629-129668861 chrX: 129883745-129887979 chrX: 131005627-131008585 chrX: 131622967-131623775 chrX: 131939267-131941552 chrX: 133394520-133396998 chrX: 136186515-136189010 chrX: 142561963-142565186 chrX: 144422164-144424505 chrX: 144422234-144423104 chrX: 145052148-145054975 chrX: 145892851-145894555 chrX: 146038405-146041724 chrX: 146039816-146041436 chrX: 146040055-146042669 chrX: 149107022-149109390 chrX: 149927875-149928845 chrX: 150268515-150270823 chrX: 150294440-150295717 chrX: 150876929-150878609 chrX: 151083288-151087810 chrX: 151474441-151476876 chrX: 154485976-154486960 chrX: 154555636-154556862 chrX: 154778514-154782563 chrX: 154918257-154921714 chrX: 155089777-155092217

TABLE 3 Genomic regions covered by 280 bp oligonucleotide spacing. Chromosome coordinates correspond to the NA18507 human genome. chr1: 8790600-8974770 chr1: 16869520-17090288 chr1: 20309286-20349544 chr1: 21730588-22255436 chr1: 24143221-24341601 chr1: 26761298-27554471 chr1: 31560929-31601751 chr1: 33496651-33537045 chr1: 35796809-35837817 chr1: 38342317-38382559 chr1: 40408910-40819394 chr1: 44549813-46180660 chr1: 50462844-51737264 chr1: 54982569-55023173 chr1: 58493475-58542371 chr1: 77574856-77615487 chr1: 80896457-81584812 chr1: 83663025-83797960 chr1: 87231009-87271289 chr1: 92519303-92560230 chr1: 93724408-93764889 chr1: 96893759-97165761 chr1: 101716151-102273691 chr1: 104119817-104300138 chr1: 109514961-110214902 chr1: 113413360-113462203 chr1: 116378624-117218832 chr1: 151972571-152071117 chr1: 154330611-155142814 chr1: 157023320-157063680 chr1: 160216060-160257271 chr1: 161356677-161397020 chr1: 165625525-165666427 chr1: 172671178-172711825 chr1: 179405008-179446629 chr1: 182890975-182949650 chr1: 191094581-191135870 chr1: 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34445840-36179238 chr20: 37585988-37627257 chr20: 40156163-40197206 chr20: 41839415-41880352 chr20: 44249019-44394665 chr20: 45769365-47155351 chr20: 48553421-49768371 chr20: 53671094-53712502 chr20: 55014196-56084286 chr20: 61915592-62946839 chr21: 10865076-11187874 chr21: 14393433-15370222 chr21: 19073347-19113586 chr21: 20210137-20251257 chr21: 29197173-29443591 chr21: 33970240-34014534 chr21: 37368292-37408976 chr21: 40479638-40735277 chr21: 48080444-48111324 chr22: 16050001-25118225 chr22: 26936438-26978194 chr22: 29052424-29110866 chr22: 31968374-32703148 chr22: 36214294-36837789 chr22: 38737297-38786398 chr22: 40482194-42125680 chr22: 43152321-43193667 chr22: 44178404-45692117 chr22: 46942817-46984749 chr22: 49292076-50172759 chr22: 51204731-51242535 chrX: 5661608-5702110 chrX: 9352364-9402723 chrX: 14832191-14873686 chrX: 16196532-16237531 chrX: 24352552-24827311 chrX: 26685422-26726253 chrX: 28656618-28697557 chrX: 30615564-30856393 chrX: 32203986-32245348 chrX: 36372828-36413458 chrX: 39626302-39667771 chrX: 40761563-41555929 chrX: 43246541-43288091 chrX: 44580215-46320320 chrX: 47680150-49476280 chrX: 50628492-50669634 chrX: 52217785-55230468 chrX: 56249270-56290061 chrX: 62387892-62428208 chrX: 64972212-65314875 chrX: 67799979-68415341 chrX: 70896653-74625305 chrX: 76281374-78040188 chrX: 80236390-80279049 chrX: 82982944-83025259 chrX: 83991146-84032852 chrX: 85394917-85436409 chrX: 86938230-87175748 chrX: 88992939-89033274 chrX: 91216800-92563993 chrX: 99390762-100719297 chrX: 106651899-106692851 chrX: 109568889-109821243 chrX: 114581999-116118608 chrX: 118334657-118376210 chrX: 119986660-120137536 chrX: 122628341-123435715 chrX: 125585620-125885925 chrX: 127828902-127869893 chrX: 132876780-132917874 chrX: 134075823-135894109 chrX: 139095404-140693475 chrX: 144238334-144349288 chrX: 147113308-147567450 chrX: 150142235-150212423 chrX: 151627950-154065915 chrX: 155229867-155258041 chrY: 1866748-1907681 chrY: 9653663-10050125 chrY: 13246305-13660991 chrY: 23577104-25184117 chrY: 26295302-28603437 chrY: 58897363-58917605 chr1: 1-847114 chr1: 2522081-2713577 chr1: 12891264-13747803 chr1: 120377389-121162199 chr1: 143424333-149760173 chr1: 206138911-206720864 chr2: 86900414-89385283 chr2: 108343285-114500974 chr4: 3578596-4190530 chr4: 47487410-49591421 chr4: 69102905-70360767 chr5: 16742337-17800241 chr6: 57871736-58567172 chr6: 170060759-171006035 chr7: 35000-160000 chr7: 74072030-76924519 chr7: 141490017-144533146 chr8: 6752221-8096446 chr8: 11811446-12612992 chr8: 86534680-86861303 chr9: 36336401-46748385 chr9: 65494386-70920000 chr10: 18041218-18200091 chr10: 44172511-52383737 chr10: 81272357-81965328 chr11: 40001-207422 chr11: 48997050-51412448 chr13: 114239588-115092802 chr15: 21326212-25244225 chr15: 28000023-31239503 chr15: 82619908-83736106 chr15: 85045806-85789771 chr16: 46385802-46528907 chr17: 34181960-34946274 chr17: 36344876-39280419 chr17: 65821780-66132070 chr17: 77704882-78973933 chr20: 29421942-29652106 chrX: 10000-1781973 chrY: 10000-901974 chrY: 58847818-58908587

TABLE 4 Genomic regions covered by 300 bp oligonucleotide spacing. Chromosome coordinates correspond to the NA18507 human genome. chr1: 4597917-4603368 chr1: 6438194-6445835 chr1: 6787516-6793395 chr1: 8182444-8191375 chr1: 8204084-8211127 chr1: 8673057-8682897 chr1: 8715188-8720239 chr1: 8766443-8774912 chr1: 10369418-10378885 chr1: 11097562-11106051 chr1: 16854043-16863594 chr1: 17175722-17181610 chr1: 24895796-24901144 chr1: 25688689-25695235 chr1: 26459570-26464632 chr1: 30688669-30693813 chr1: 34406948-34412032 chr1: 35102307-35111970 chr1: 39433145-39440637 chr1: 41021207-41028481 chr1: 41991470-41997984 chr1: 46244285-46251346 chr1: 47565590-47574182 chr1: 53580640-53568914 chr1: 55089225-55095974 chr1: 60046731-60052368 chr1: 62113371-62119744 chr1: 69996393-70002209 chr1: 71244106-71249573 chr1: 72755371-72764036 chr1: 77106208-77112305 chr1: 77774744-77781454 chr1: 83807765-83814646 chr1: 90169037-90174165 chr1: 99856525-99865334 chr1: 100194890-100204463 chr1: 104103686-104113237 chr1: 106015813-106023397 chr1: 107095215-107102345 chr1: 107201327-107211256 chr1: 107655304-107663735 chr1: 110252339-110259004 chr1: 111929021-111934897 chr1: 118069772-118075824 chr1: 120104966-120113946 chr1: 120142387-120150241 chr1: 142535521-142542934 chr1: 152185909-152193469 chr1: 159012766-159019831 chr1: 159118351-159123995 chr1: 160953742-160960609 chr1: 174796614-174801850 chr1: 179329828-179335094 chr1: 180750406-180755506 chr1: 182262748-182269906 chr1: 182776637-182781883 chr1: 187399799-187405049 chr1: 187715748-187722278 chr1: 187939362-187947395 chr1: 188325018-188330315 chr1: 189071908-189077598 chr1: 189772130-189777709 chr1: 189777391-189786094 chr1: 190638400-190646807 chr1: 192675218-192683546 chr1: 194936155-194946091 chr1: 195013954-195019705 chr1: 195359744-195365244 chr1: 195526227-195531417 chr1: 198305134-198310536 chr1: 205917508-205922673 chr1: 207741538-207746586 chr1: 210077993-210085962 chr1: 213004863-213013140 chr1: 213314571-213320124 chr1: 218917580-218922769 chr1: 222373943-222380499 chr1: 224199356-224204485 chr1: 225075528-225081091 chr1: 226375850-226384008 chr1: 229812526-229820631 chr1: 232890253-232899241 chr1: 240219317-240225042 chr1: 243120356-243130355 chr1: 249144921-249150547 chr2: 207761-215529 chr2: 1218833-1227243 chr2: 1528334-1535327 chr2: 1533892-1542761 chr2: 6795702-6805395 chr2: 7230036-7235715 chr2: 10150554-10157686 chr2: 10433505-10439183 chr2: 11395030-11400620 chr2: 13087432-13093196 chr2: 13555202-13561869 chr2: 14190096-14199486 chr2: 14704166-14710045 chr2: 17584080-17592046 chr2: 18260251-18267997 chr2: 23153867-23159752 chr2: 29958037-29963288 chr2: 31403351-31411711 chr2: 34303765-34313027 chr2: 36332589-36339555 chr2: 41776008-41781174 chr2: 48851209-48857846 chr2: 49533720-49539282 chr2: 49653686-49662187 chr2: 51772538-51781819 chr2: 53631630-53887764 chr2: 56649400-56655700 chr2: 57842228-57849900 chr2: 59623296-59631007 chr2: 66099629-66105015 chr2: 66978344-66983484 chr2: 67759060-67766216 chr2: 79331533-79339762 chr2: 84100928-84106703 chr2: 92292052-92300176 chr2: 96727246-96733710 chr2: 106347837-106353279 chr2: 123477291-123482469 chr2: 125639339-125645009 chr2: 126378317-126385964 chr2: 126443174-126451968 chr2: 129638490-129646581 chr2: 147941645-147946792 chr2: 150621365-150626697 chr2: 151031148-151038204 chr2: 164438272-164443520 chr2: 165855413-165865029 chr2: 167494647-167501455 chr2: 172832837-172840816 chr2: 177265710-177271922 chr2: 178678786-178684838 chr2: 180067718-180072888 chr2: 180412903-180422173 chr2: 184085446-184090996 chr2: 186741423-186747368 chr2: 187844264-187850418 chr2: 188384126-188389392 chr2: 189267263-189277181 chr2: 189567840-189573327 chr2: 194689555-194697784 chr2: 200178423-200183555 chr2: 205343819-205349083 chr2: 205706215-205711954 chr2: 207860723-207865763 chr2: 208350852-208359404 chr2: 212801927-212809271 chr2: 213183953-213192002 chr2: 226453568-226462957 chr2: 226955605-226962339 chr2: 227165362-227171023 chr2: 227342447-227347452 chr2: 228488428-228494889 chr2: 234492605-234501401 chr2: 234569283-234575116 chr2: 235442849-235450064 chr2: 238554030-238559382 chr2: 241914865-241922196 chr3: 228631-234368 chr3: 528304-534054 chr3: 990695-996780 chr3: 1032760-1039425 chr3: 4192417-4201134 chr3: 4932839-4938174 chr3: 9359852-9365532 chr3: 16580617-16589915 chr3: 18946005-18953294 chr3: 20311112-20317882 chr3: 22279439-22286398 chr3: 22941523-22946888 chr3: 25850020-25855058 chr3: 26432273-28439460 chr3: 28810031-28817818 chr3: 30994742-30999883 chr3: 36711780-36719477 chr3: 37978470-37986876 chr3: 41587741-41595624 chr3: 41779107-41789001 chr3: 43053229-43059805 chr3: 45543287-45552064 chr3: 49721171-49727086 chr3: 49726377-49733587 chr3: 50343466-50349348 chr3: 50945260-50955050 chr3: 58798489-58808349 chr3: 60050980-60057155 chr3: 68631989-68640250 chr3: 68635089-68640250 chr3: 68739499-68747867 chr3: 72779987-72786060 chr3: 74147583-74154361 chr3: 74807887-74812932 chr3: 77337641-77346005 chr3: 85878639-85884972 chr3: 86848288-86855189 chr3: 89670061-89678063 chr3: 97739466-97794710 chr3: 98726549-98736401 chr3: 98943596-98949668 chr3: 99207484-99216623 chr3: 103464803-103470992 chr3: 103593873-103603147 chr3: 104293536-104300500 chr3: 110694073-110699196 chr3: 125672365-125679046 chr3: 125712288-125722078 chr3: 125944521-125952894 chr3: 129076142-129083883 chr3: 131602136-131607141 chr3: 131708261-131713399 chr3: 131989585-131995012 chr3: 133016100-133025982 chr3: 133132004-133137072 chr3: 136020773-136026295 chr3: 146385189-146390341 chr3: 148963614-148969711 chr3: 153465040-153470192 chr3: 160680271-160685991 chr3: 161308602-161816680 chr3: 163658959-183665126 chr3: 164117871-164125977 chr3: 164302588-164311775 chr3: 166086031-166094634 chr3: 169352223-169359647 chr3: 173209418-173214445 chr3: 189092017-189100061 chr3: 189363208-189371038 chr3: 190514429-190521024 chr3: 191064731-191071632 chr3: 191988483-191996689 chr3: 192304880-192312848 chr3: 192373677-192378988 chr3: 192777384-192782563 chr3: 193136250-193142870 chr4: 553618-560788 chr4: 3059756-3069436 chr4: 3468004-3474478 chr4: 5614696-5620033 chr4: 5889661-5895891 chr4: 6895182-6900570 chr4: 7218321-7225836 chr4: 12153942-12162848 chr4: 15760451-15768822 chr4: 19858388-19864369 chr4: 21081080-21086557 chr4: 21137385-21142485 chr4: 21369093-21377090 chr4: 28943964-28953141 chr4: 29034157-29040382 chr4: 32985487-32994374 chr4: 33378223-33386666 chr4: 34683608-34688623 chr4: 35146818-35152167 chr4: 35848130-35856605 chr4: 39116220-39122927 chr4: 42762742-42769519 chr4: 44018298-44027195 chr4: 44323795-44331070 chr4: 45521400-45527595 chr4: 58567133-58573027 chr4: 58811892-58818426 chr4: 60288872-60294403 chr4: 60324904-60330935 chr4: 63669562-63676380 chr4: 70467481-70474320 chr4: 73418782-73426022 chr4: 73552118-73558447 chr4: 75078561-75083647 chr4: 79256788-79263029 chr4: 79421607-79431447 chr4: 90101108-90107506 chr4: 96701137-96708229 chr4: 97319268-97325686 chr4: 97729123-97736626 chr4: 105266318-105273759 chr4: 106577867-106583120 chr4: 106708350-106717147 chr4: 107056530-107063322 chr4: 108152739-103162227 chr4: 110840754-110845757 chr4: 112236730-112242626 chr4: 115175100-115184162 chr4: 115507882-115514003 chr4: 122282239-122290674 chr4: 137359061-137364851 chr4: 138092026-138100754 chr4: 138324141-138333392 chr4: 143616010-143621320 chr4: 143794391-143800941 chr4: 145000210-145009953 chr4: 146918610-146927658 chr4: 154758172-154765406 chr4: 156673835-156678864 chr4: 156957038-156966800 chr4: 156965114-156973966 chr4: 161879032-161884945 chr4: 168109174-168115505 chr4: 172374403-172379633 chr4: 172645715-172651777 chr4: 173425019-173430516 chr4: 173425019-173434070 chr4: 176030572-176039563 chr4: 178052183-178058019 chr4: 178884836-178893123 chr4: 179240667-179246334 chr4: 179286761-179296162 chr4: 179516956-179522448 chr4: 187162949-187168923 chr4: 187844016-187850486 chr5: 2769433-2777414 chr5: 8017606-8024076 chr5: 12810977-12820331 chr5: 13415392-13422923 chr5: 14995242-15000583 chr5: 16650304-16660144 chr5: 19223089-19232232 chr5: 19277926-19287636 chr5: 20419954-20428886 chr5: 20436963-20444354 chr5: 26796702-26801907 chr5: 28216623-28225329 chr5: 28245483-28253082 chr5: 28927599-28932729 chr5: 45004762-45014494 chr5: 46214782-46220269 chr5: 46270448-46276087 chr5: 53053775-53059759 chr5: 59489615-59496332 chr5: 63697966-63703697 chr5: 76317796-76323028 chr5: 83943432-83955098 chr5: 90618564-90623946 chr5: 106248534-106255784 chr5: 108538428-108543579 chr5: 110595369-110600573 chr5: 110905931-110911040 chr5: 111939492-111944907 chr5: 112666841-112672251 chr5: 114255282-114261315 chr5: 114255699-114262577 chr5: 114326170-114334013 chr5: 117141677-117147812 chr5: 117387158-117395999 chr5: 117868237-117878164 chr5: 123134815-123140614 chr5: 126195468-126201782 chr5: 127895818-127904284 chr5: 128627133-128632392 chr5: 134258136-134264715 chr5: 135115252-135120861 chr5: 140096794-140105317 chr5: 140215713-140222054 chr5: 140554460-140559847 chr5: 142016241-142021453 chr5: 147701022-147706063 chr5: 147742531-147749953 chr5: 150203369-150211385 chr5: 155948588-155954267 chr5: 167118388-167126431 chr5: 178258606-178266167 chr6: 601190-607388 chr6: 3253917-3262554 chr6: 3712581-3719680 chr6: 8924868-8932953 chr6: 11477421-11483532 chr6: 11786468-11791797 chr6: 12008060-12013799 chr6: 14582102-14591012 chr6: 18106851-18112902 chr6: 19041269-19049510 chr6: 21825501-21834188 chr6: 23460350-23485391 chr6: 26343849-26351580 chr6: 26677369-26683871 chr6: 30982075-30989830 chr6: 31229143-31235839 chr6: 31270366-31279433 chr6: 31308595-31313661 chr6: 31318916-31325710 chr6: 31336878-31344406 chr6: 31952447-31958916 chr6: 31985141-31991744 chr6: 32468816-32474512 chr6: 32474972-32481643 chr6: 32507644-32513014 chr6: 32540154-32546207 chr6: 32550496-32559809 chr6: 32560862-32570412 chr6: 32587519-32594357 chr6: 32600591-32607907 chr6: 32651571-32657522 chr6: 32664617-32672914 chr6: 32689075-32697955 chr6: 33048360-33054740 chr6: 33289511-33296285 chr6: 33937823-33943036 chr6: 33963108-33969161 chr6: 38495659-38504443 chr6: 40829246-40838674 chr6: 48745206-48753735 chr6: 48840995-48846579 chr6: 48898154-48904303 chr6: 48930877-48938505 chr6: 51040323-51046059 chr6: 51668875-51675620 chr6: 51801347-51808428 chr6: 52797421-52803827 chr6: 53928764-53934834 chr6: 54299305-54305752 chr6: 54848098-54851665 chr6: 55907704-55912800 chr6: 57622861-57631223 chr6: 58618325-58624205 chr6: 58773521-58780132 chr6: 62200459-62206207 chr6: 63219158-63225196 chr6: 67210350-67215491 chr6: 74592011-74601507 chr6: 74708924-74716855 chr6: 76155476-76160886 chr6: 77097591-77103692 chr6: 77439787-77449423 chr6: 79521092-79530501 chr6: 81283740-81293537 chr6: 81507242-81514132 chr6: 94963053-94969110 chr6: 108026135-108035102 chr6: 108029706-108036977 chr6: 121512246-121517842 chr6: 121519481-121526100 chr6: 125588935-125595914 chr6: 131809780-131816116 chr6: 139602605-139607757 chr6: 141774668-141781657 chr6: 142043388-142050538 chr6: 146733815-146739150 chr6: 153924584-153932603 chr6: 165406753-165416511 chr6: 165724709-165731958 chr6: 167613861-167622008 chr6: 167729012-167736167 chr6: 168726791-168733853 chr6: 168778664-168784785 chr7: 54629-60367 chr7: 699727-704942 chr7: 1703807-1710491 chr7: 1855970-1863481 chr7: 3610530-3618955 chr7: 4073333-4082299 chr7: 8230639-8236558 chr7: 12003338-12010123 chr7: 13022272-13028540 chr7: 21763945-21769647 chr7: 26137323-26145721 chr7: 29824540-29831970 chr7: 37931024-37936701 chr7: 39546315-39551777 chr7: 47283653-47290258 chr7: 51591210-51598231 chr7: 51595127-51603727 chr7: 51742923-51751752 chr7: 53322982-53328678 chr7: 54380642-54388276 chr7: 70195944-70203118 chr7: 72270097-72275581 chr7: 81107235-81113960 chr7: 87864416-87869830 chr7: 89520116-89525708 chr7: 91032992-91042557 chr7: 92994313-93000853 chr7: 93326803-93332386 chr7: 96505363-96513731 chr7: 97396010-97402601 chr7: 101001018-101007033 chr7: 110181971-110188439 chr7: 111251272-111257116 chr7: 113652813-113659255 chr7: 115931547-115941121 chr7: 118332903-118391350 chr7: 118590992-118599039 chr7: 122856064-122861804 chr7: 126045909-126051433 chr7: 126271757-126278927 chr7: 126776235-126781390 chr7: 131774499-131780614 chr7: 146133751-148139658 chr7: 146366572-146371757 chr7: 151223180-151231642 chr7: 152574722-152580274 chr7: 154392156-154399657 chr7: 154448379-154455966 chr7: 155135570-155141554 chr7: 155138626-155143663 chr7: 156387081-156394378 chr7: 158496115-158504942 chr7: 159117388-159122697 chr8: 1835429-1840933 chr8: 2077972-2085486 chr8: 2129537-2134915 chr8: 2253695-2263666 chr8: 2316905-2323505 chr8: 3994899-4004472 chr8: 4953041-4962888 chr8: 8583122-8589371 chr8: 13599265-13609200 chr8: 14262187-14267720 chr8: 14501601-14506603 chr8: 14507036-14515214 chr8: 16201251-16207498 chr8: 17309962-17315589 chr8: 21329823-21337031 chr8: 23202200-23207249 chr8: 24145153-24151166 chr8: 25410668-25416618 chr8: 35195413-35201496 chr8: 36273816-36279095 chr8: 37390142-37395444 chr8: 40182784-40189967 chr8: 47062983-47068987 chr8: 47372645-47377775 chr8: 51031112-51038335 chr8: 54510310-54518345 chr8: 61218121-61227873 chr8: 63034999-63040375 chr8: 63215345-63225085 chr8: 64059438-64065076 chr8: 70858351-70864644 chr8: 78831591-78840271 chr8: 79180575-79187753 chr8: 80315841-80321840 chr8: 85260988-85269165 chr8: 87188259-87195171 chr8: 88522810-88529042 chr8: 94072142-94077206 chr8: 94237473-94243038 chr8: 96049101-96054739 chr8: 99017130-99025235 chr8: 102619280-102626751 chr8: 104906431-104912684 chr8: 109103048-109111256 chr8: 111494281-111500232 chr8: 114040471-114046513 chr8: 115633844-115643484 chr8: 120019379-120027798 chr8: 120153083-120161219 chr8: 125101681-125110686 chr8: 129756802-129766376 chr8: 130435196-130442658 chr8: 135059619-135068046 chr8: 135474056-135479979 chr8: 136621505-136627582 chr8: 145078505-145087086 chr8: 145686297-145692418 chr9: 11210749-11216089 chr9: 15815327-15822312 chr9: 17401160-17406972 chr9: 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53203716-53212090 chr10: 54558282-54566467 chr10: 54783079-54788916 chr10: 54929338-54938105 chr10: 55318849-55328766 chr10: 64425664-64430909 chr10: 67306949-67315330 chr10: 67330860-67337297 chr10: 70612585-70622298 chr10: 78255613-78261009 chr10: 78457472-78464478 chr10: 80825979-80831421 chr10: 83883604-83889070 chr10: 84712311-84717625 chr10: 85547844-85552887 chr10: 87800959-87808419 chr10: 87952333-87959792 chr10: 90794988-90803055 chr10: 100334287-100339880 chr10: 102354737-102362123 chr10: 107057057-107062403 chr10: 110302904-110312792 chr10: 115207583-115216931 chr10: 126068891-126074429 chr10: 126188375-126196450 chr11: 397562-403191 chr11: 1263589-1272764 chr11: 3237378-3244077 chr11: 6114243-6122520 chr11: 9503476-9508855 chr11: 13105229-13114133 chr11: 13309693-13314781 chr11: 20844562-20849955 chr11: 22115220-22122929 chr11: 24443020-24452316 chr11: 24658410-24864318 chr11: 29007150-29012726 chr11: 33048624-33055726 chr11: 35536628-35541880 chr11: 36647350-36654814 chr11: 38457245-38463922 chr11: 42967960-42976150 chr11: 54694268-54702353 chr11: 54883977-54891951 chr11: 57755622-57761480 chr11: 57760689-57767758 chr11: 57851535-57856666 chr11: 61025460-61034934 chr11: 65266587-65273530 chr11: 65573764-65580076 chr11: 65933942-65939538 chr11: 66907429-66917095 chr11: 70074807-70083680 chr11: 76142373-76148527 chr11: 79390434-79395844 chr11: 81473113-81478397 chr11: 81856416-81864120 chr11: 83128488-83135939 chr11: 83532806-83538775 chr11: 93683253-93688561 chr11: 93695267-93702056 chr11: 96821926-96829326 chr11: 101888827-101894040 chr11: 104267656-104273258 chr11: 105293505-105298919 chr11: 112163598-112168627 chr11: 119950867-119956926 chr11: 120659070-120665253 chr11: 124070724-124077178 chr11: 125075432-125085341 chr11: 126961750-126966930 chr11: 131924234-131930336 chr11: 134032897-134037937 chr11: 134601923-134607643 chr11: 134742499-134748742 chr11: 134794930-134800366 chr12: 147109-155538 chr12: 377587-384807 chr12: 866732-874998 chr12: 6242393-6248034 chr12: 6255426-6260562 chr12: 15568294-15573592 chr12: 18385343-18393744 chr12: 22418956-22424245 chr12: 26108846-26114910 chr12: 29558508-29566219 chr12: 30014747-30022341 chr12: 30237233-30243568 chr12: 30290207-30296633 chr12: 30330755-30338534 chr12: 30395367-30404636 chr12: 33299311-33307468 chr12: 39477962-39483489 chr12: 44586517-44593277 chr12: 45903142-45909996 chr12: 57344349-57352033 chr12: 57374348-57379880 chr12: 64399479-64405306 chr12: 67295958-67301314 chr12: 67728435-67733753 chr12: 70872154-70878189 chr12: 72758024-72765117 chr12: 80153258-80162897 chr12: 80157028-80162112 chr12: 80894838-80902628 chr12: 82215508-82225307 chr12: 86426094-86433836 chr12: 86695700-86703035 chr12: 90890467-90899162 chr12: 98953705-98959633 chr12: 99793970-99802788 chr12: 103839074-103846962 chr12: 104279566-104287336 chr12: 108219833-108225072 chr12: 111137848-111146971 chr12: 113360314-113367311 chr12: 114632099-114637993 chr12: 127487761-127495171 chr12: 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chr15: 56705729-56714821 chr15: 56789892-56799449 chr15: 65642378-65648928 chr15: 71708011-71714661 chr15: 85884428-85893236 chr15: 86340554-86349995 chr15: 94886423-94892329 chr15: 97261396-97269079 chr15: 97808048-97815360 chr15: 98798299-98803712 chr15: 100416735-100421995 chr16: 60072-69544 chr16: 222083-227514 chr16: 3492826-3498744 chr16: 4822530-4831608 chr16: 4898228-4905232 chr16: 5572058-5580264 chr16: 14499743-14505676 chr16: 16725497-16731694 chr16: 19001374-19009025 chr16: 19349712-19355571 chr16: 19406426-19413044 chr16: 20541999-20550237 chr16: 23933905-23942232 chr16: 24536735-24546255 chr16: 24540910-24546370 chr16: 26822964-26829675 chr16: 35245740-35251886 chr16: 47872598-47878432 chr16: 48073692-48084956 chr16: 58945790-58953073 chr16: 59549624-59556208 chr16: 62544371-62550663 chr16: 63216594-63223270 chr16: 68787573-68793936 chr16: 70650573-70660117 chr16: 76661549-76671182 chr16: 77749355-77754764 chr16: 78525165-78530718 chr16: 78972969-78978373 chr16: 80903661-80913633 chr16: 80976802-80983432 chr16: 81246128-81252840 chr16: 85437601-85446396 chr16: 88310313-88316278 chr16: 89066030-89075935 chr17: 16444-21699 chr17: 66139-71897 chr17: 3257497-3266821 chr17: 6871584-6877107 chr17: 10761664-10766716 chr17: 10890347-10895682 chr17: 11028232-11036510 chr17: 12380995-12387689 chr17: 15590147-15595367 chr17: 39384376-39390821 chr17: 39532301-39539624 chr17: 41436594-41442401 chr17: 41861227-41869555 chr17: 53545954-53553610 chr17: 54790683-54795690 chr17: 56207576-56213435 chr17: 61952233-61961185 chr17: 61992965-61999918 chr17: 65438392-65443542 chr17: 70789985-70795175 chr17: 70815169-70821126 chr17: 72499405-72508207 chr17: 75265634-75272576 chr17: 77049053-77056338 chr17: 77486001-77491672 chr17: 79456533-79462306 chr18: 4330259-4335790 chr18: 5927649-5934123 chr18: 5955923-5962557 chr18: 7108710-7113772 chr18: 15405391-15410866 chr18: 25974343-25981420 chr18: 30495710-30503537 chr18: 32759746-32767794 chr18: 34253176-34259839 chr18: 38259897-38266706 chr18: 41976689-41982037 chr18: 46997742-47005316 chr18: 61812963-61822771 chr18: 63200808-63207255 chr18: 63723667-63732675 chr18: 64959015-64967478 chr18: 66202370-66209628 chr18: 67208394-67217471 chr18: 70721315-70726820 chr18: 76793267-76799991 chr18: 77111264-77118922 chr19: 1465058-1470715 chr19: 2085035-2090634 chr19: 2952464-2961355 chr19: 3475233-3480366 chr19: 7754964-7763062 chr19: 9863461-9871586 chr19: 14695453-14704392 chr19: 16037624-16044884 chr19: 17443249-17450279 chr19: 19832965-19839599 chr19: 24459113-24464126 chr19: 27731835-27741199 chr19: 28360883-28367128 chr19: 28405267-28411010 chr19: 35140398-35148102 chr19: 35661185-35666238 chr19: 42547869-42553974 chr19: 43627757-43637403 chr19: 44913296-44920831 chr19: 44957502-44964253 chr19: 45588911-45595377 chr19: 45734893-45740384 chr19: 46622580-46628261 chr19: 46789635-46795752 chr19: 46957030-46963124 chr19: 48407011-48413051 chr19: 50554817-50561656 chr19: 50634803-50640327 chr19: 51106142-51111826 chr19: 53316544-53322605 chr19: 54419684-54429205 chr19: 54739497-54747869 chr19: 55282343-55287902 chr19: 55334160-55340144 chr19: 56713379-56722952 chr19: 56745506-56750701 chr19: 57202898-57211930 chr19: 58538016-58543046 chr19: 59050134-59055169 chr19: 59106282-59114781 chr20: 9317654-9324532 chr20: 11980855-11989333 chr20: 14272053-14278825 chr20: 15310943-15320723 chr20: 23168907-23176009 chr20: 36791314-36799811 chr20: 38641910-38647024 chr20: 39529999-39536976 chr20: 52285691-52292074 chr20: 52331839-52337078 chr20: 52474800-52484346 chr20: 58670192-58675763 chr20: 59474758-59483045 chr20: 60517815-60524291 chr20: 62949257-62958441 chr21: 14343414-14351683 chr21: 20836862-20844283 chr21: 22005639-22010665 chr21: 25258240-25263281 chr21: 25539237-25546833 chr21: 28195250-28201822 chr21: 28227783-28234286 chr21: 31639126-31644252 chr21: 38151275-38157727 chr21: 40981640-40987483 chr21: 41203032-41208686 chr21: 44699610-44706185 chr21: 45232877-45241349 chr21: 45254689-45264263 chr21: 45326239-45334057 chr22: 25956792-25965135 chr22: 29783258-29791250 chr22: 36943282-36949682 chr22: 37744420-37750160 chr22: 38956160-38964907 chr22: 39044664-39050505 chr22: 42523627-42531095 chr22: 50781725-50787037 chr22: 51117967-51125408 chrX: 3983026-3990952 chrX: 6340765-6348422 chrX: 8171057-8179543 chrX: 17273972-17280645 chrX: 17787639-17793339 chrX: 22036030-22041139 chrX: 26516250-26522559 chrX: 30301130-30309650 chrX: 37337724-37343977 chrX: 39964121-39969286 chrX: 43573124-43579834 chrX: 44299823-44305769 chrX: 62578258-62587129 chrX: 63871455-63881383 chrX: 66107886-66113066 chrX: 67123385-67130234 chrX: 79211451-79218632 chrX: 88455722-88463632 chrX: 90969623-90979064 chrX: 92796310-92801483 chrX: 101055334-101060870 chrX: 105523370-105531311 chrX: 108012036-108017924 chrX: 119057290-119065913 chrX: 137242328-137248001 chrX: 141315417-141320722 chrX: 143628694-143637970 chrX: 145891204-145897502 chrX: 146179898-146185881 chrX: 146359714-148369327 chrX: 146843715-146849068 chrX: 149082100-149087710 chrX: 150707124-150713261 chrX: 150722277-150731784 chrX: 151080438-151090155 chrX: 154790170-154797579 chrX: 155179516-155185223

TABLE 5 Genomic regions covered by 500 bp oligonucleotide spacing. Chromosome coordinates correspond to the NA18507 human genome. chr1: 1567881-1683706 chr1: 4393668-4404190 chr1: 6476628-6521516 chr1: 8216828-8240818 chr1: 8671618-8685734 chr1: 14311609-14371586 chr1: 16346942-16390883 chr1: 16833086-16343681 chr1: 17175722-17195780 chr1: 17175722-17206132 chr1: 17175722-17281753 chr1: 17206162-17220630 chr1: 17229613-17280888 chr1: 17229920-17259337 chr1: 19599632-19614527 chr1: 22293885-22342339 chr1: 22320722-22340752 chr1: 25585225-25665195 chr1: 25610133-25646986 chr1: 25688611-25751772 chr1: 41346422-41380988 chr1: 44095567-44107276 chr1: 62437799-62452376 chr1: 64839620-64852107 chr1: 72786282-72811969 chr1: 85974018-86005661 chr1: 87580408-87614258 chr1: 88879477-88906799 chr1: 89798969-89812208 chr1: 95134798-95156000 chr1: 106104918-106122404 chr1: 106164403-106214528 chr1: 106307571-106317929 chr1: 108311070-108325460 chr1: 108760471-109097308 chr1: 108778622-108853925 chr1: 108914669-109000909 chr1: 110215012-110244931 chr1: 110216166-110259108 chr1: 111378562-111389136 chr1: 112692629-112704793 chr1: 112693290-113248263 chr1: 113246318-113350775 chr1: 113862952-114901117 chr1: 114919330-115547919 chr1: 115563302-116102691 chr1: 121350196-121485194 chr1: 121351637-121435549 chr1: 121406885-121426119 chr1: 121473109-121485194 chr1: 152185869-152196724 chr1: 152274215-152287539 chr1: 152555610-152590091 chr1: 152648867-152660425 chr1: 152760089-152771114 chr1: 153069195-153087963 chr1: 153671644-153695309 chr1: 155180489-155221243 chr1: 155227059-155262674 chr1: 158159222-158214160 chr1: 161409063-161442720 chr1: 161411989-161544650 chr1: 161479945-161646758 chr1: 166180432-166196987 chr1: 169059628-169621268 chr1: 169226853-169242132 chr1: 170625064-170641390 chr1: 171016086-171726961 chr1: 171128845-171414611 chr1: 171556291-171726822 chr1: 176590614-176613264 chr1: 178449098-178481285 chr1: 181147037-181213705 chr1: 188984277-189038124 chr1: 189705238-189780469 chr1: 191826563-191868462 chr1: 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25446467-25467682 chr21: 37922877-37938746 chr21: 40918970-40965975 chr21: 44822523-44838545 chr21: 47293464-47303825 chr22: 25619034-25928990 chr22: 29783647-29794087 chr22: 30280400-30298271 chr22: 31461316-31474644 chr22: 35457951-35469677 chr22: 39355807-39392500 chr22: 39426703-39443920 chr22: 42517258-42541967 chr22: 42520935-42550520 chr22: 42527065-42541189 chr22: 42879261-42954881 chr22: 42897738-43005214 chr22: 42962616-42977833 chr22: 51067664-51078724 chrX: 2365874-2399200 chrX: 3734030-3856690 chrX: 3734575-3761060 chrX: 3739947-3799384 chrX: 3800585-3855985 chrX: 3839019-3857055 chrX: 8454001-8518025 chrX: 26810657-26821041 chrX: 27265919-27500092 chrX: 30806559-30325841 chrX: 34042986-34072685 chrX: 39949255-39969615 chrX: 43572184-43585716 chrX: 56655690-56672223 chrX: 56794101-56807918 chrX: 57600617-57618003 chrX: 57746379-57756613 chrX: 58505727-58526280 chrX: 58507310-58581854 chrX: 58558297-58581854 chrX: 61682187-61726512 chrX: 61682187-61769705 chrX: 61682187-61918208 chrX: 62346911-62385163 chrX: 63722947-63735218 chrX: 66103939-66138092 chrX: 78914283-78924581 chrX: 79160790-79180498 chrX: 80214189-80232301 chrX: 80748634-80780706 chrX: 81395939-81415502 chrX: 101055334-101067767 chrX: 103210756-103225013 chrX: 103258654-103305529 chrX: 119034815-119058340 chrX: 121304874-121316011 chrX: 125101270-125168874 chrX: 125177002-125226847 chrX: 125233398-125290643 chrX: 130230896-130274637 chrX: 140775845-140789431 chrX: 143160940-143295598 chrX: 148643925-148654642 chrX: 148877193-149031805 chrX: 148878343-148902155 chrX: 154299852-154445592 chrX: 154782659-154797504 chrX: 154790028-154803714 chrX: 154929773-154963593

Example 3 Pilot Study

The microarray chips of Example 2 were used to detect genomic regions that have undergone complex structural rearrangements predisposing subjects to Developmental Neurocognitive Disorders (DND) and Complex Autoimmune Disorders.

Four families afflicted with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), two families afflicted with psoriasis (Ps) and one family afflicted with Ankylosing Spondylitis (AS) were studied.

Genomic DNA samples were obtained from the subjects. The samples were first cleaned using QIAamp DNA Micro kit (Qiagen Cat#56304, lot#433156339). Each sample was eluted in a final volume of 95 μl in the Buffer AE provided with the kit. Then each sample was submitted to Nanodrop absorbance measurements for quantitation and quality analysis. A 2% agarose 48 wells EGeI® (E-gel, Invitrogen#G800802) was done to control the quality of gDNA.

According to NanoDrop results, 1.5 μg of each sample (in duplicate) were prepared and also 1.5 μg of control associated to each sample (including duplicate). The sample labeling was done by adding Random Primer to the samples before denaturation and fragmentation in a thermal cycler (AB Applied Biosystems #GeneAmp PCR system 9700) at 95° C. for 10 minutes, 4° C. for 5 minutes then move on ice for 5 minutes incubation. The Labeling Master mix was added to each tube (Cy3 for sample and Cy5 for control). Samples were transferred to a thermal cycler for 2 hours at 37° C., 10 minutes at 65° C. and 4° C. holding. The samples were then moved to ice and cleaned using Amicon 30 kD filter unit.

The cleaning was done with 1×TE buffer from Promega (TE Buffer, 1×, Molecular Grade (pH 8.0), a buffer composed of 10 mM Tris-HCl containing 1 mM EDTA Na2, pH at 25° C. The final volumes obtained were around 21 μl. Each duplicate (sample and control) were combined and the volume adjusted to 161 μl. 1.5 μl of each sample (combined) were used to determine yield and specific activity using Nanodrop spectrophotometer with the function MicroArray Measurement for DNA-50.

After yield determination, each sample was mixed with its corresponding control for a total volume of (319 μl). The total mixture was split into 2 tubes for hybridization. The hybridization master mix was added to each tube. Sample tubes were transferred into incubator with 1.5 ml tube heat block (SciGene #1057-30-0, SciGene#1057-34-0) set at 95° C. for exactly 3 minutes and immediately transferred into a second block heater set at 37° C. for 30 minutes.

Removing sample from 37° C. two by two (duplicate), the duplicates were mixed and loaded on the corresponding array then placed into hybridization oven for the week-end (86 hours).

After hybridization, the arrays were removed from the oven 8 by 8 and washed with wash buffer 1, wash buffer 2, acetonitrile and stabilization & drying solution. Arrays were installed into slide holder and cover with ozone barrier. Immediately after, the arrays were scanned with Agilent Sure Scan C scanner with a resolution of 3 μm.

Detection of Previously Identified Genomic Aberrations

The custom microarray was able to detect previously reported pathogenic aberrations associated with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD).

A 700 kb deletion known to be associated with ASD was detected on chromosome 16p11,2. The detected aberration was de novo as it was only detected in the affected family member and not in unaffected parents or siblings.

Novel ASD Loci

DNA from 17 subjects representing four families was analyzed. Seven subjects with ASD and 10 controls were analyzed.

A. Complex Aberration with PGAP1 Gene

Both deletion and duplication events were detected within this region in three families. In each family, the complex aberration was detected in affected family members but not in unaffected family members.

The PGAP-1 gene aberration is located on chromosome 2 between nucleotides 197707345-197776074 (NA18507 human genome).

Without being bound by theory, PGAP1 (post-GPI attachment to proteins 1) catalyzes glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) biosynthesis and PGAP1 may function as a novel component of the Wnt pathway during forebrain development [Zoltwicz et al, 2009]. In addition, knockout of PGAP1 in mice results in complete loss of GPI synthesis and disrupts neurodevelopment [UEDA et al. 2007]. This is the first report linking aberrations within PGAP1 with ASD.

B. Complex Aberration within C7orf58

Multiple deletions were detected within the C7orf58 gene in three families. In each family, the aberration was detected in affected family members but not in unaffected family members.

Without being bound by theory, while the specific function of c7orf58 is unknown, disruption of the c7orf58 gene has been previously reported in a single patient with mental retardation, anxiety disorder and ASD (Dauwerse et al., 2009).

C. Complex Aberration within LNX1 Gene

An aberration was observed within the LNX1 gene. A complex aberration pattern was observed involving two deletions within the same gene within multiple patients with autism spectrum disorders.

The LNX1 gene aberration is located on chromosome 4 between nucleotides 54436284-5433277 (NA18507 human genome).

Novel Ankylosing Spondylitis Loci

DNA from 10 members of a single family were analysed. The family pedigree included 5 members affected with ankylosing spondylitis (AS), 2 with systemic lupus and 1 with psoriasis.

A complex aberration (multiple duplications within and adjacent to UGT2B17 and UGT2B25 genes) were detected in all family members affected with AS but was not detected in unaffected family members. This aberration was also detected in one family member affected with systemic lupus.

The UGT2B17 gene aberration is located on chromosome 4 between nucleotides 69399539-69430016 (NA18507 human genome) and the UGT2B15 gene aberration is located on chromosome 4 between nucleotides 69518934-69530196 (NA18507 human genome).

The UGT2B17 gene encodes a key enzyme responsible for glucuronidation of androgens and their metabolites in humans. Without being bound by theory, changes in copy number within the UGT2B17 gene have been previously reported to be involved in bone formation, a characteristic of AS (Yang et al, Giroux et al).

Example 4 Atypical Micro-Duplications Located at 2q21.1-21.2 Co-Segregate with Tourette Syndrome in a Three Generation Family Introduction

Tourette syndrome (TS) is a developmental neuropsychiatric disorder characterized by the presence of motor (simple and/or complex) and verbal tics with duration longer than one year [Pauls et al. 1991; Price et al. 1985; State 2011]. TS often manifests with features associated with obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD); attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), poor impulse control and other behavioural abnormalities, the pathophysiology of which remain to be elucidated [Robertson 2012]. The prevalence of TS is between 0.3-1% in any given population [Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2009; Robertson 2008; Robertson et al. 2009], and consistently affects males more than females [Robertson 2012]. Twin studies consistently show higher concordance rates in monozygotic compared with dizygotic twins [Pauls et al. 1991; Price et al. 1985; Walkup et al. 1988] suggestive of a strong genetic component underpinning disease pathogenesis. Although early segregation analyses suggested an autosomal dominant inheritance pattern [Eapen et al. 1993], recent evidence suggests a heterogeneous complex genetic architecture underpins the pathogenesis of TS [Eapen et al. 1993; Pauls and Leckman 1986; State 2010; State 2011].

Structural variations are a risk factor for neuropsychiatric diseases. Recent analysis of copy number variants (CNV) in TS have demonstrated an association with genes previously implicated in autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and other neuropsychiatric disorders [Fernandez et al. 2012; Lawson-Yuen et al. 2008]. A rare deletion of exons located 5′ in the neurexin 1 (NRXN1) gene was identified in two unrelated TS patients [Sundaram et al. 2010]. A second deletion in the α-T catenin (CTNNA3) gene was identified in two independent TS studies [Fernandez et al. 2012; Sundaram et al. 2010]. Interestingly, deletions encompassing both the NRXN1 and CTNNA3 genes have been reported in ASD and schizophrenia [Fernandez et al. 2012; Sundaram et al. 2010]. Another rare deletion comprising the NLGN4 gene (Le. exons 4, 5 and 6) has been previously reported in TS and ASD [Lawson-Yuen et al. 2008]. An insertion/translocation between chromosomes 2 and 7 was reported to disrupt the CNTNAP2 gene in a two generation pedigree with a father and two offspring affected with TS [Verkerk et al. 2003]. The identification of CNVs implicated in neuropsychiatric disorders complicates genotype-phenotype analysis. That no single CNV has been reported to segregate uniquely with TS in affected families provides a great opportunity to detect novel CNVs specific to TS through the study of multiplex families.

Clinical Reports

Family A.

The proband (FIG. 6; ID3000) presented at 9 years to a developmental pediatrician following a referral from a school counsellor and was diagnosed with TS. His three siblings were subsequently diagnosed at 6, 8 and 9 years respectively (FIG. 6; ID3001, ID3002, ID3003). The mother of these boys had anxiety, obsessive traits and vocal and motor tics since childhood, however was only diagnosed as having TS at 44 years. (Table 6). The father of the four affected boys has mild anxiety but no tics. The maternal grandfather has no diagnosis, but has manifested both verbal and motor tics through his lifespan according to family information, although these were not obvious during a recent psychiatric assessment. The maternal grandmother was diagnosed with bipolar disorder in her 70s and is treated effectively. She has no tics currently, nor any history of tics.

Proband 10003.

The proband presented at 12 years to a pediatric psychiatrist and was diagnosed with TS (Table 6). Extended family history is limited due to adoption.

Families B and C.

These families have no known extended history of TS or other co-morbidities.

Methods

TS Population.

Probands and families were ascertained through a prospective study of TS in Newfoundland and Labrador (NL), from the Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and the Child Development Clinic in the Janeway Child Health Centre, the Provincial Children's Hospital. Extended family histories and in-depth clinical information were obtained. The study was approved by the Human Research Ethics Board (#07-71). To date, 28 probands have been recruited and eight multi-generational family histories completed. DNA samples were collected from all affected subjects, their parents and extended family members (in multipex pedigrees) following consent and completion of multiple rating scales. The primary focus of this study was a single multiplex pedigree (FIG. 6, Family A).

Control Population.

To assess the population frequency of the CNV detected using the custom aCGH microarray, 590 control samples were used from the NL population with no clinical report of TS and performed real time quantitative fluorescence polymerase chain reactions (QF-PCR). Custom Microarray. To assess the presence of CNVs on a genome-wide scale, a custom genome-wide microarray was designed based on breakpoints in regions that are susceptible to genomic rearrangements previously identified [Uddin et al. 2011]. The microarray comprised 2×1 million probes covering the genome with a mean spacing of 280 bp. DNA from the TS multiplex family was applied to the custom aCGH microarray which was performed at Genome Quebec (GQ) using an Agilent platform. Prior to CNV analysis, QC measures were applied and the derivative of the log ratio spread (DLRS) <0.25 was considered the threshold and CNVs were detected using the built-in Aberration Detection Method-2 (ADM-2) algorithm DNA Analytics v.4.0.85 (Agilent Technologies) using the following criteria: 1) at least five (5) probes for a CNV call on GC-corrected intensity; 2) nested filter was set to 2; and 3) log intensity >0.24 for duplications and <−0.24 for deletions. A custom script was applied to detect gene-enriched CNVs (i.e., overlaps or consists of a gene) that segregated (at least three cases) with affected status in the family.

QF-PCR.

To confirm the duplication detected using the custom 2M aCGH microarray, a Taqman copy number assay (Hs03417816; Life Technologies) was performed using the manufacturer's recommended protocol. The assay was performed in quadruplicate on 10 ng of genomic DNA for each sample in a 96-well plate. The 10 μl reaction mix consisted of 2 μl 2× Taqman Genotyping Master Mix (Life Technologies), 0.5 μl of 20× copy number assay (described above), 0.5 μl of TaqMan RNAse P Copy Number Reference Assay (Life Technologies, part 4403326), 2 μl of water and 2 μl of 5 ng/μl genomic DNA. Cycling conditions for the reaction were 95° C. for 10 min, followed by 40 cycles of 95° C. for 15 sec and 60° C. for 1 min. Samples were analyzed using the ViiA™ 7 Real-Time PCR System (Life Technologies) and analyzed using CopyCaller Software (Life Technologies, PN 4412907). Three reference (calibrator) DNA HapMap samples (NA10851, NA15510 and NA07048; Coriell Institute) plus one non-template control were included with the test samples.

Results

The custom high-density aCGH microarray yielded approximately 2000 genomic aberrations. Comprehensive data analysis revealed atypical, rare micro-duplications located at chromosome 2q21.1 which segregated with affected members in family A. Large de novo variants were not detected in affected family members (data not shown). Within a 221 kb (chr2:132305299-132526804) region, two common blocks of micro-duplications were identified that segregated together in five of the six affected individuals (FIG. 2), with a smaller region of overlap of block2 in the remaining affected individual (FIG. 1, ID3003). These duplication blocks are 38 kb (block1-chr2:132305299-132343808) and 131 kb (block2-chr2:132395155-132526804) in length, respectively (FIG. 7), separated by 51 kb. All affected family members had nearly identical breakpoints except the fourth affected sibling (ID3003) who had a partial 30 kb duplication within block2 (chr2:132480185-132510827), All affected family members carried a micro-duplication which encompassed the C2orf27A gene. Complex rearrangements were also detected in block2 for individuals ID1001 and ID2002 comprising small micro-deletions of 4.1 kb and 2.4 kb, respectively.

The presence of block2 among five of the six affected family members was validated using a QF-PCR assay which demonstrated a relative copy number of four within the affected siblings and mother whereas unaffected members had a copy number of two or three (data not shown). QF-PCR analysis was performed on two additional families and 10 unrelated individuals with TS. The block2 micro-duplication with a copy number of 4 was detected in one additional affected individual (ID10003), but absent in all other unrelated affected or unaffected samples tested. Of the 590 control individuals analyzed using QF-PCR, only CNV predictions calls on 443 samples had a 95% confidence interval. The frequency of a copy number of four was observed in 4/443 (0.009) individuals.

Discussion

The salient characteristics of TS segregate in subjects with the micro-duplications including multiple motor and vocal tics, and common co-morbidities including ADHD, OCD, major depression, anxiety, behavioural problems, and learning disability [Termine et al, 2006]. Migraine and sleep difficulties which have been reported in association with TS are also present in several affected family members [Abelson et al. 2005; Freeman et al. 2000; Kwak et al. 2003; Lespérance et al, 2004; Singer 2005]. Although TS segregates with the micro-duplications described, the morbidity of disease is variable. The proband (FIG. 6; ID3001) and his three siblings exhibit various features of TS, with the three oldest siblings manifesting the greatest phenotypic morbidity. The mother (ID2002) was diagnosed with TS at 44 y.o. Her past medical and school history however suggests that the TS diagnosis would have been made in childhood were she to present today as a child. However both the mother (ID2002) and the father (ID2001) function at a high level socially and occupationally. The maternal grandparents (ID1001 & ID1002) function well and have done so throughout life, with the maternal grandfather (ID1001) manifesting tics throughout his adult life. The youngest sibling (ID3003) who carries a partial 30 kb micro-duplication within block2 presents with a more benign phenotype compared with his older siblings. However, an unrelated TS proband (ID10003) also carries the same partial micro-duplication and has a phenotypic presentation similar to the older three siblings in family A, and the two common micro-duplication blocks are also present in the mother (ID2002) and maternal grandfather (ID1001), neither of whom present with the same burden of disease. Although TS has been considered a single clinical diagnosis, it is usually considered a ‘spectrum’, and evidence from factor analysis suggests that the disorder can be separated into symptom groupings with potentially different etiologies [Cavanna et al. 2011] further complicating genotype-phenotype correlation as illustrated by Family A.

A genomic region containing two micro-duplication blocks, the larger of which (131 kb) segregates with TS status in a three generation family has been identified. This micro-duplication encompasses the C2orf27A gene, which belongs to the C2orf27 gene family, and encodes an uncharacterized protein. Although the function of this gene is unknown, it was derived from a guanine nucleotide exchange factor protein [Toll-Riera et al. 2011]. Guanine nucleotide exchange factors are expressed in the basal ganglia [Kawasaki at al. 1998] which is associated with a variety of functions, including voluntary motor control, procedural learning relating to routine behaviors or “habits” such as eye movements, and cognitive functions [Albin at al. 1995]. Unlike previous reports of CNV associations with TS [Fernandez et al. 2012; Sundaram et al. 2010], these micro-duplications have not been reported with any other neuropsychiatric disorder and thus the candidate region is specific to TS. Interestingly, a larger region which encompasses the CNVs here detected in this study was previously identified as a locus through linkage analysis for dystonia in a four generation family [Norgren at al. 2011]. In that study, a critical 8.9 MB region correlated with the highest LOD score (FIG. 8). This critical region represents a hotspot for genomic aberrations correlating with multiple neuropsychiatric conditions.

Given that the micro-duplications identified in this study are atypical CNVs, the population frequency was determined. From the Newfoundland population, it was observed that the larger micro-duplication represents an atypical, rare genomic aberration. Previously published high-density (42 million probes) genomic tiling microarray data (Conrad et al., 2010) have revealed the presence of common micro-deletions interspersed within the micro-duplicated regions identified in this study. Very low frequency (0.01-0.07) typical duplications have been reported in the Database of Genomic Variants (DGV) within this region. The DGV demonstrated typical CNV gains with low frequencies and of the reported studies, no single individual carries two duplication blocks within this region. However, the breakpoints reported in the DGV have not been validated. These breakpoints are also absent within the large study that investigated 15,767 children with various types of intellectual disability [Cooper et al. 2011]. Thus, this unusual segregation of the two micro-duplication blocks within the TS family is a rare event and is highly correlated with TS pathogenesis.

These findings underline the impact of CNVs with respect to human health and genomic susceptibility to TS. The larger micro-duplication that segregates with the affected individuals of Family A encompasses the C2orf27A gene. The rare frequency of this micro-duplication within the control population shows a link between the 2q21.1-21.2 locus and TS pathogenesis.

TABLE 6 Clinical Features of Family A and Proband B. Presentation Age and Co- Other Birth TS Developmental IQ/Cognitive: Morbiality: Medical Hx. dx. History Profile Tics Treatment^(β) age of dx. Problems 3000 C  9 y Normal early WISC (8 y): Vocal and Melatonin ADHD Allergic to section milestones. FSIQ 73%, VIQ motor tics Risperidone combined dust mites 9 y. Breech Referred to 94%, PIQ 32%. since 6 y. Ritalin, type 8 y Mild asthma Breast Developmental Overall high- Increased tics Concerta OCD 9 y 12 y. fed 10 Paediatrician average IQ. at 12 y. Worst Strattera Anxiety Gynecomastia months (8 y) by Large spilt tics reduced Prozac 9 y school 13 y. Chronic School between verbal by 14 y. Adderall refusal headache 13 y. Guidance and performance Accutane 14 y. Sleep disorder Counsellor IQ. Addiction 14 y (difficulty for possible Psychoeducational to gaming falling asleep, ADHD assessment 19 y waking early, (15 y): written snoring: sleep output learning study disability. negative). WAIS IV (18 y): Acne 16 y FSIQ 61%; Possible mood VCI 70%; PRI disorder, 86%; WMI 55%; (very PS; 6% apathetic) WIATII (18 y): ongoing spelling superior, assessment listening with comprehension Psychiatrist high average, 19 y. other areas average. 3001 C  6 y Normal early WISC (8 y) Vocal and Melatonin ADHD 7 y Nocturnal section milestones. FSIQ: 32%, VIQ motor tics Risperidone Dyslexia enuresis 6 y Placental Referred to 37%, PIQ: 77%, since 6 y Ritalin (severe) Sleep disorder failure Developmental PS: 21%, WMI Concerta 9 y (? sleep Breast Paediatrician 18%. Overall Strattera Sensory apnea) 8 y fed 1 at 4 yrs for average Clonidine integration Acne 13 y year assessment of WIATII (8 y) Accutane disorder speech composite score: 9 y problems extremely low OCD 9 y aggression for reading and Auditory frustration writing, low processing and fine average for oral disorder motor skill language and 14 y delay. borderline for Possible math. ADHD/TS 3002 C  8 y Normal early WISC (10 y): Vocal and Melatonin ADHD 7 y Trace section milestones. Overall high- motor tics Concerta OCD 9 y tricuspid and at 37 Referred to average IQ. since 6 y. Strattera Anxiety pulmonic weeks developmental FSIQ 87%; VCI complex tics Prozac 9 y regurgitation Breast paediatrician 91%; PRI 91%; at 8 y Adderall 9 y fed 8 at 5 y for WMI 42%; PS Paxil Sleep months concerns 73% disturbance 5 y about fine WIATII (10 y) motor skills, Spelling skills speech borderline, development, listening hyperactivity comprehension poor impulse average control and aggression. 3003 C  9 y Normal early WISC (8 y): Vocal and Melatonin OCD 6 y Sleep section milestones. FSIQ 34%; VCI motor tics Dyslexia disturbance 7 y at 37 Referred to 88% PRI 61%; since 6 y 9 y Sensory issues weeks developmental WMI 9%; PS 9% Anxiety 5 y Breast paediatrician WIATII (8 y): Fearful of fed 8 at 5 y for borderline word school months aggressive reading, 10 y behaviour numerical and operations obsessions. spelling and oral Easily expression frustrated 2002 NVD 44 y Normal early Not done Vocal and Concerta ADHD Cervical milestones motor tics Strattera 38 y dysplasia 22 y since Self Renal colic childhood manages 25 y anxiety Sensory issues and OCD. and Migraine headaches 31 y 1001 N/A N/A N/A Not done Vocal and Has OCD Atrial motor tics* traits* Fibrillation Easily 69 y frustrated* Basal cell carcimoma 78 y Colon Cancer 79 y Abdominal aortic aneurysm 80 y 10003 NVD 12 y Normal Not done Motor tics Risperidonc ADHD tympanostomy early 5 y 12 y tubes 6 y milestones Vocal Strattera OCD Systolic Referred to tics 10 y Clonidine 13 y heart pediatrician OCD Seroquel Anxiety murmur 11 y 12 y. History worsening 15 Prozac NOS 17 y Sleep of y, resolving Celexa problems hyperactivity, 19 y Haldol (difficulty ADHD, Clonazepam falling short Luvox asleep) 13 y attention Equinus span, anger deformity of issues, sleep foot 14 y problems TS: Tourette Syndrome, ADHD: Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder, FSIQ: Full Scale Intelligent Quotient, VIQ: Verbal Intelligent Quotient, PIQ: Performance Intelligent Quotient, VCI: Verbal Comprehension Index, PRI: Perceptual Reasoning Index, WNI: Working Memory Index, PS: Processing Speed, y: years, NVD: normal vaginal delivery, N/A: Not available *Family information only ^(β)Includes all treatments from diagnosis to present day: not all currently prescibed.

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We claim:
 1. A microarray chip system comprising at least: 500, 750, 1000 or 1500 distinct oligonucleotide probes bound to a solid support, wherein each oligonucleotide probe comprises a nucleotide sequence complementary to a rearrangement indicator sequence region of a human genome, the rearrangement indicator sequence regions comprising a rearrangement indicator set that is indicative of risk, or occurrence, of genomic rearrangements.
 2. The system of claim 1, wherein each oligonucleotide probe hybridizes under medium or high stringency conditions to the corresponding complementary rearrangement indicator sequence region.
 3. The system of claim 1, wherein the oligonucleotide probes are complementary to genomic sequences not more than 100, 150, 280, 300 or 500 base pairs apart within a single rearrangement indicator sequence region.
 4. The system of claim 1, wherein the oligonucleotides probes are 30 to 100 base pairs in length, optionally 45 to 65 base pairs in length.
 5. The system of claim 1, wherein the oligonucleotides are complementary to at least 5, 10, 15 or 30 contiguous nucleotides of the rearrangement indicator sequence regions.
 6. The system of claim 1, wherein at least 5, 10 or 15 oligonucleotide probes comprise a nucleotide sequence complementary to a single rearrangement indicator sequence region.
 7. The system of claim 1, wherein the rearrangement indicator sequence regions comprise at least one rearrangement hotspot and optionally, the rearrangement hotspots are within segmental duplications.
 8. The system of claim 7, wherein the rearrangement hotspots are selected from the genomic regions listed in Table
 1. 9. The system of claim 1, wherein the rearrangement indicator sequence regions are selected from the genomic regions listed in Tables 2-5.
 10. The system of claim 1 wherein the solid support comprises at least one or two microarray chips and the oligonucleotide probes are arrayed on the at least one or two microarray chips.
 11. The use of the microarray system of claim 1 for detecting a genomic rearrangement or the risk of a genomic rearrangement, wherein the genomic rearrangement is optionally a copy number variant (CNV).
 12. The use of claim 11, wherein the genomic rearrangement indicates a genetic disease in a subject or the risk of a genetic disease in a subject.
 13. The use of claim 12, wherein the genetic disease is Autism Spectrum Disorder, Psoriasis or Ankylosing Spondylitis.
 14. The use of claim 12, wherein the genetic disease is Autism Spectrum Disorder and the genomic rearrangement is detected in the genes PGAP 1 or LNX1.
 15. The use of claim 12, wherein the genetic disease is Ankylosing Spondylitis and the genomic rearrangement is detected in the genes UGT2B17 or UGT2B15.
 16. A method of detecting genomic rearrangements in a subject comprising: a. labeling a DNA test sample from a subject with a first fluorophore; b. labeling a DNA reference sample with a second fluorophore; c. contacting the labeled samples with the microarray system of claim 1 and hybridizing the labeled samples to the oligonucleotide probes of claim 1; and d. identifying a genomic rearrangement, wherein a non-equal signal ratio between first fluorophore and the second fluorophore identifies a putative genomic rearrangement.
 17. The method of claim 16, wherein the labeled samples are hybridized to the oligonucleotide probes of claim 1 under medium or high stringency hybridization conditions.
 18. The method of claim 16, wherein a log 2 ratio of >0.25 or <−0.25 identifies a putative genomic rearrangement.
 19. The method of claim 16, wherein the genomic rearrangement indicates a genetic disease or the risk of a genetic disease.
 20. A method of constructing a microarray chip for detecting copy number variations comprising: a. identifying at least 500, 1000, 1500 rearrangement indicator sequence regions; b. designing oligonucleotide probes complementary to the rearrangement indicator sequence regions; and c. arraying the oligonucleotide probes on at least one microarray chip.
 21. A method of screening for, diagnosing and/or detecting an increased risk of developing Tourette Syndrome in a human subject comprising: a) obtaining a sample from the subject; b) assaying the sample for the presence of and detecting a Tourette Syndrome copy number variant in a Tourette Syndrome critical region thereby identifying the subject as having Tourette Syndrome or an increased risk of developing Tourette Syndrome, the assaying comprising hybridizing a probe and/or primer to the Tourette Syndrome copy number variant.
 22. The method of claim 21, wherein the Tourette Syndrome critical region is on chromosome 2, optionally located at 2q21.1-21.2.
 23. The method of claim 21, wherein the Tourette Syndrome copy number variant is a duplication or a deletion.
 24. The method of claim 23, wherein the duplication is a duplication of genomic sequence corresponding to: chr2:132305299-132343808, chr2:132395155-132526804 or chr2:132305299-132343808 human genome assembly 19 or a portion thereof.
 25. The method of claim 21, wherein detecting a Tourette Syndrome copy number variant with an increased copy number compared to a reference sequence identifies the subject as having Tourette Syndrome or an increased risk of developing Tourette Syndrome.
 26. The method of claim 21, wherein the subject is presymptomatic, has one or more clinical symptoms or clinical features associated with Tourette Syndrome, has been diagnosed with Tourette syndrome and/or has at least one blood relation with Tourette Syndrome.
 27. An isolated nucleic acid, wherein the nucleic acid hybridizes to: a. a Tourette Syndrome copy number variant or a portion thereof; b. a nucleic acid sequence complementary to a); and/or c. a nucleic acid sequence corresponding to a).
 28. The isolated nucleic acid of claim 27, wherein the Tourette Syndrome copy number variant comprises genomic sequence corresponding to chr2:132395155-132526804, chr2:132305299-132343808 or chr2:132480185-132510827 of human genome assembly 19 or a portion thereof.
 29. The isolated nucleic acid of claim 27, wherein the isolated nucleic acid is a primer.
 30. A kit for screening for, diagnosing or detecting an increased risk of developing Tourette Syndrome comprising: a. a Tourette Syndrome copy number variant detection agent comprising an isolated nucleic acid of claim 27; and b. instructions for use or a container for holding the detection agent of (a). 